LESSONS I— XXV 



SWEDISH GRAMMAR 



by 



A. LOUIS ELMOUIST 




Class _ELQall 
Rnnk Eg 



GopghtN?.. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



LESSONS I -XXV 



SWEDISH GRAMMAR 



by 



A/ LOUIS DLMQUIST 

PROFESSOR OF SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES 
NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY 



THE ENTGBERG-HOLMBERG PUBLISHING CO. 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

1913 



NOTE. 
This advance copy of Swedish Grammar does not include 
the extensive account of the phonology (containing important 
matters not previously presented in any similar work), the various 
resumes, appendices nor vocabularies which will appear in the 
completed work. 






Copyright 1913 by 
The Engberg-Holmberg Publishing Co. CHICAGO, Ii.L. 



LC Control Number 




tmp96 031299 



©CU351154 

toil 



LESSON I. 

GENDER. 

1. The Swedish language has two genders, common 
and neuter. 

(r) Of common gender are names of living beings and 
most names of inanimate objects; as, gosse boy, flicka 
girl, lampa lamp, stol chair. 

(2) Neuter are all names of inanimate objects which 
are not of common gender; as, hus house, bord table. 

Note. — 1. A few names of living beings are neuter, by excep- 
tion; as, barn child, far sheep, bi bee. 

2. Observe that "common", as here used, does not mean that 
a word may be either masculine or feminine, but simply that it is 
not neuter (non-neuter gender). 

3. The distinction between neuter and common gender is purely 
grammatical, having nothing to do with sex. Observe, moreover, 
that while in English the names of inanimate objects are regularly 
neuter, they are in Swedish partly of common and partly of neu- 
ter gender. 

4. Words of common gender which are names of living beings, 
are in most grammars, according as the sex is male or female, 
said to be of masculine or feminine gender, or they are called com- 
mon-gender masculines and common-gender feminines. Natural 
gender is, however, of very small importance, except as regards 
the use of the personal pronouns corresponding to "he" and 
"she". See \ 9. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

2. An adjective modifying a common-gender noun in 
the singular is left unchanged; as, bran stol brown chair, 
denna stol dr brun this chair is brown. 



4 INDEFINITE ARTICLE I 

An adjective modifying a neuter noun in the sin- 
gular adds -/,■ as, brunt hits brown house, delta lius ar 
brunt 1 this house is brown. 

,'). Especially in the case of the articles and many pro- 
nouns containing n, the neuter is formed by substitut- 
ing t for ?i\ as, denna, n. delta this. 

4. SUMMARY: In adjectives, articles and pronouns, 
/ is the sign of the neuter singular. 

THE INDEFINITE 'ARTICLE. 

5. The indefinite article is: 

Common gender e?i 2 ) 

la, an 

Neuter ett ) 

Ex.: en slot a chair, en vacker lampa a beautiful lamp, 
ett hits a house, ett vackert bord a beautiful table. 

6. Similarly possessive pronouns: 

Common miri 1 / . dinger / , . . 

-my, mine _.,, , your, yours (sing.) 

Neuter mitt \ y ' dill, ertv ,J v s J 

Note. — Observe that Swedish min and din, er represent both 
"my" and "mine", "yonr" and "yours", respectively. 

VERBS. 

7. The present singular of the verbs vara to be, and 
ha{ya) to have: 

jag I am jag I have 

du, ni >ar you are d?i, ni \har you have 

han, ho7i, den, del } he, she, it is han y etc., J he has 

THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 
8* The pronoun du (and its possessive din) is used 



1 In Swedish, as in Latin, the predicate adjective is inflected. In German 
it is invariable. 

2 In these words n is not written double even after a short vowel; see £™. 



I PRONOUNS 5 

in familiar address, 1 i. e. in speaking to relatives, friends 
and children. The pronoun ni (and its possessive er) 
is more formal. Du and ni are both translated '.'you" 1 ; 
so din and er are rendered by "your." 

9. Han he, and hon she, are used as in English. 
Den is used in referring to inanimate objects of common 
gender. Det is used in referring to inanimate objects of 
neuter gender. Both den and det are rendered in Eng- 
lish by "it". In brief: 
I han he 



. animate 
Common -l hen she ) 

I den ) . . 
v 7 I it, inanimate 
Neuter det ) 

10- ORTHOGRAPHY, (i) Titles (see § 13, 2) are writ- 
ten with a small initial letter, except when used in direct 
address. 

(2) Ni (possessive er) is frequently capitalized in let- 
ters as a sign of respect. Also the pronoun of familiar 
address is sometimes capitalized. 

11. OBSERVE THE PRONUNCIATION OF: min % din, han, 
hon, men, e?i, den, det. 

12. ACCENT: (1) Swedish words of two or more sylla- 
bles have the grave accent (see§JgJJ); as, denna, detta, 

flicka, gosse, haver, vara, liten. Some words of two or 
more syllables, however, have acute accent. These ex- 
ceptions will be indicated in the following lessons under 
the heading ACCENT. The distribution of grave and acute 
accent in the various grammatical categories, as presented 
in each lesson, will also be considered. 

1 In poetry, and in prose in the elevated stj'le, du and din are used in 
addressing any person. These pronouns are also employed in addressing 
the Deity. In these cases English uses the corresponding pronouns "thou" 
and "thine". 



6 COLLOQUIALISMS I 

(2) Swedish words have the chief stress on the first syl- 
lable. Of all exceptions to this rule the accent will be 
designated 1 whenever such words occur, except in the 
exercises. 

(3) Frbken (§ JJJJj]|) has acute accent. 

lo. PRINCIPAL COLLOQUIALISMS. (1) In the spoken 
language denna (11. detta) is followed by the noun in the 
definite form; as, denna stolen, detta huset. In place of 
denna (11. detta) the spoken language usually, and the 
language of books sometimes, employs den ha'r (n. det 
ha'r), which is also followed by the noun in the definite 
form. With den ha'r, which means literally "the one 
here", compare the English "this here". 

(2) In books ni (possessive er) is regularly used as 
the formal pronoun of address in the singular. In the 
spoken language, however, this is not considered quite 
polite, and many people object to its use, though much 
less now than formerly. Instead of ni, the spoken lan- 
guage generally, and the language of books sometimes, 
employs the title of the person addressed, with or with- 
out the name. For er the genetive of the title is used. 
When the name does not follow, the definite form (see 
§§ 14, 15) of the title is used, which may be preceded by 
kerr (' ' Mr .' ' ) or fnt ("Mrs."). When the name follows, 
the indefinite form is used in the case of most titles; some, 
however, may have either defiaite or indefinite form, while 
others are always put in the definite forn. Ex.: Var bor 
herr Andersson nu f Where do you live now ? Vad sdger 
professorn (or herr professorn , or professor Ljungmark) om 
saken? What do you say about the matter? Hur g ani- 
mal dr redakfbrens son? How old, is your sou? When 



1 In the following lessons the question of stress will not be treated under 
this heading, but in the lesson proper or in the foot-notes, whenever com- 
ment is necessary. 



I . . COLLOQUIALISMS 7 

addressing a person whose name or title is not known, 
min herre, min fru and frbken are used in addressing 
respectively men, married women and unmarried women. 
To use simply herm and frun is considered somewhat 
vulgar. So as to avoid the use of these cumbersome 
titles, it is customary even for people of but slight 
acquaintance to agree that they will use the familiar 
pronoun du (possessive din) in addressing each other. 

(3) Inte is in the spoken language regularly used in- 
stead of icke. 

(4) Of the forms hava and ha, the spoken language 
uses only the shorter, while the written language uses 
either hava or ha. 

(5) On a colloquial use of the possessive pronouns, 
see § 41, 4. 

(6) In easy speech the final consonant sound is dropped 
in jag, och and ar, which are then pronounced respec- 
tively ja, a and a 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — Gender is indicated in the vocabularies only in the case 
of neuter nouns, which are not nearly so numerous as those of 
common gender. It is important to remember which nouns are 
neuter. 

barn n. child flicka girl 

bi n. bee far n. sheep 

bord n. table gosse boy 

brim brown han lie 

den {n. det) it ha(va) {sing, har) have 

denna (n. detta) this hon she 

din (?i. ditt) {f ami liar) , your , hus ?z. house 

yours (sing.) icke not 

du f familiar), yoti {sing.) jag / 

en (?i ett) a, an lampa lamp 

er {formal), your, yours liten small 



8 VOCABULARY I 

men but stol chair 

min (;/. mitt) my, mine stor large 

ill {formal), you vacker beautiful, pretty 

och aud var where 

pa on vara {sing, ar) ^ 

EXERCISE I. 

.4. i. Jag har ett stort bord. 2. Jag har en lampa 
pa mitt bord. 3. Den ar vacker. 4 Mitt hus ar stort, 
men det ar icke vackert. 5. Denna stol ar brim. 6. Hon 
ar en vacker flicka. 7. Er gosse ar stor. 8. Har ni en 
stol oeh ett bord? 9. Ar ert bord brunt ? io. Detta hus 
ar icke.ditt. 11. Ar din lampa vacker? 12. Var ar 
din gosse? 13. Har du ett hus? 14. Ar det vackert? 

B. 1. He has a table and a chair. 2. Is your {famil- 
iar) chair brown? 3. He is a large boy. 4. Have you 
{formal) a lamp on your table? 5. My house is beauti- 
ful, but not large. 6. This girl is beautiful. 7. Where 
is your {form.) house? 8. This house is mine. 9. It 
is not yours {fam). 10. Is your {fam.) lamp small? 
11. Mine is large. 12. You {fam.) are a little girl. 
13. Is your {form.) lamp beautiful ? 14. He has a beau- 
tiful house. 15. It is large. 



II THE DEFINITE ARTICLE 



LESSON II. 

THK DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

14. The definite article is not a separate word as in 
English, but is an ending added to the noun; as, stol 
chair, stolen the-chair; hus house, haset the house. Its 
forms are: 

COMMON NEUTER 

Sing. -e?i, -n -et, -t 

> , / 

Plur. -?ta, -a, -e?i 

15. The singular forms -en, -et are used chiefly with 
words ending in a consonant (see examples in § 14); -n, -t, 
chiefly with words ending in a vowel; as, Jiicka gir\,Jtie- 
ka?i the girl; gosse boy, gossen the boy; tike kingdom, 
riket the kingdom. 

In the plural there is no distinction of gender. The 
nature of the preceding sound determines which form 
of the article (-na, -a or -en) is to be used. 

Note. — Further details about the use and distribution of the 
various forms will be given in the following lessons. 

VERBS. 

16- The present indicative of: 

INF. vara to be haiva) to have 

Sing. Jag, etc., dr jag, etc., liar 

Plur. vi ixro we are vi ha (havcu) we have 

/ dren you are / han 1 {haven) you have 

de dro they are de ha (hava) they have 

17. The present indicative active of regular verbs: 
INF. tala to speak skriva to write bo to live 



1 This form is rare. 



io VERBS PRESENT TENSE II 

Sing, jag, etc., talat jag, etc w skriver jag, etc., bor 

Plur. vi tala vi skriva vi bo 

I taloi I skriven I bon 

de tala de skriva de bo 

18. Only a few verbs, namely those whose infinitive 
does not end in a, are conjugated like bo. Except when 
compounded, these are monosyllabic. Observe that the 
inflectional endings consist only of a consonant (-r, -?i) . 
Compare the forms of bo with the shorter forms of 
ka(va). 

II). In all moods and tenses (not only in the present 
indicative) the second person plural of all verbs ends in 
-en or -n . However, this form is of very limited use 
(see § 23). 

20- In the present indicative active, observe that (1) 
the singular ends in -r, which is preceded by -a or e, 
except in verbs of the type of bo; (2) in all verbs except 
those of the type of bo, the first and third persons plural 
end in a; (3) in all verbs, including those of the type 
of bo, the first and third persons plural are identical 
in form with the infinitive. But notice vara, pres. plur. 
dro, which is an exception. 

21- The very common progressive and emphatic verb- 
forms of English are in Swedish rendered by the simple 
verb: 

he is writing J 

he does write > han skriver 

he writes ) 

Likewise in negative sentences and questions: 

he is not writing | , , . . . 

\ han skriver icke 
he does not write ) 

is he writing ) . . . , 

. - skriver ka?i l 

does he write j 



1 Observe the inveited order of the questions, as in English. 



II PROXOINS II 

PRONOUNS. 

22. Possessive pronouns denoting more than one pos- 
sessor: vdr, n. vart our, ours; er, n. e?i your, yours. 

23- The plur. pronoun / is used only in the more ele- 
vated literary style. In other forms of style and in con- 
versation, ni (identical with the formal sing, pronoun ni) 
is used in place of /. Accordingly the verb-form / talen, 
etc., is used only in elevated style. The plur. ni takes 
its verb in the singular (ni ta/ar 1 , etc.), though the 
plur. verb (jiitala 1 , etc.) often occurs in literature. 

Note. — i. In the plural pronouns of the second person (/, ni, 
possessive er) there is no distinction between familiar and formal 
address. 

2. As "you" "your" in English is the same in the singular and 
plural, so in Swedish the plurals ?ii, possessive er, are identical 
in form with (the formal) ni, er of the singular. 

24 ORTHOGRAPHY: The pronoun / is capitalized. 
T*his distinguishes it from the preposition i (see the vo- 
cabulary). 

25. PRONUNCIATION: Sverige, giva. 

26 • ACCENT: (i) All dissyllabic forms which are the 
result of the addition of the definite article to mono- 
syllabic nouns, have the acute accent; as, hasten (from 
hast), stolen (sto/), brevet (Jbrev) , hnset (hus) . On the 
other hand observe the grave accent in gossen (from 
gosse) , blomman (blommd), riket (rike) . The plural forms 
of the article follow the same rule. Fcr illustrations, 
see the various declensions. 

(2) All verb forms of more than one syllable have the 
grave accent, in all tenses and moods, 2 except that the 



1 For the sake of convenience these forms are not included in the verb- 
paradigms. The student should constantly bear in mind that these are the 
usual forms for the second person plur. Pronouns of the second person 
plur. are, however, by the nature of things, not of frequent occurrence. 

2 A few verbs, however, which have acute accent in the infinitive, take 
this accent in all forms. See § 40, 3. 



12 DEFINITE ARTICLE II 

present indicative singular ending in cr has 1 lie acute; 
as, sitter, skriver, giver. On the other hand talar, sitta, 
sittcu, etc., have the grave accent. 

(3) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, 1 not taking 
into account inflectional forms, eller and Sverige have 
acute accent. 

27. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Iu the spoken language a 
plural subject is regularly followed by the singular fonn 
of the verb, the plural verb-form never being used. Ex.: 
vi talar, 7ii talar, de talar. Moreover, the pronoun / is 
not used in the spoken language (see § 23). 

(2) In place of giver, giva the spoken language reg- 
ularly uses ger, the literary language frequently ger, 
plur. ge, gen, ge. 

(3) In the definite form of the singular of neuters 
ending in a consonant, the spoken language of some 
parts of Sweden omits the final -t; as, hiise for huset. 

(4) In easy speech dem, the objective form of de (see 
§ £)> i s i n some parts of Sweden used as subject; as, 
dom a for de dro. 

(5) In conversation de is pronounced di and mycket, 
my eke. 

(6) In easy speech rod is pronounced rb and till is 
pronounced te. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — It will be found most convenient to learn the gender 
of nouns by repeating and memorizing the definite form of the 
singular. 

blomma flower brev n letter 

bla blue de (plur. of han,hou, den.det) 

bo (sing, -r) live (=dweW) they 



1 In the following lessons the acute accent will be indicated only ic the 
case of words occurring for the first time in each lesson. 



II DEFINITE ARTICLE 13 

dar there mycket adv., very 

eller or plocka {sing, -ar 1 ) pick 

er your, yours rike n. kingdom 

gat a street rod red 

giva {sing, -er 1 ) £7V<? sitta {sing, -er) sz? 

bar //<?re skriva {sing, -er) zero'/!? 

hast horse Sverige n. Sweden 

i in, into tala {sing, -ar) ta/£, s/^/6 

I j>w<! {plur.) till &? 

kvinna woman vi ?e'<? 

lang /t?;^' var 0«r, ours 

EXERCISE II. 

A. 1. Var hast ar mycket vacker. 2. Har ar en bla 
blomma. 3. Blomnian ar icke bla. Den ar rod. 4. Gos- 
sen bor i ett mycket stort hus. 5. Kvinnan sitter pa 
stolen och skriver ett langt brev. 6. Sverige ar ett stort 
rike. 7. Gossen och flickan aro pa gatan. 8. Sitter 
icke gossen pa stolen? 9. Flickan giver kvinnan brevet. 
10. Bo de bar eller dar? 11. De ha en brun hast. 
12. Var aren I? 13. Gossen plockar en vacker blomma. 
14. Denna gata ar lang. 15. De giva brevet till kvinnan. 

B. 1. I am writing a long letter. 2. He is sitting 
on my cbair. 3. Is the flower blue or red? 4. Tbe 
boy is giving the flower to the woman. 5. This king- 
dom is very large. 6. Is this street very long? 7. Here 
is a letter. 8. Where do you {plur.) live? We live in 
this bouse. 9. Is the horse there? 10. Tbe boy and 
the girl live in Sweden, n. This horse is ours. Where 
is yours (plur.) ? 12. The lamp and the letter are on the 
table. 13. Are you {plur.) writing a letter to the boy? 
14. Have they a large house? 15. They are not talking. 

1 That is, giv-er. flock-ar. 



14 DECLENSION III 

LESSON III. 
DECLENSION. 

28. Swedish nouns are divided into five declensions 
according to the formation of the plural: (1) -or, (2) -a?', 
(3) er, (4) n, (5) plural without ending. 

Note. — The definite form of the plural is made by further 
adding the proper plur. definite article (see § 14); as, jlicka, plur. 
flickor, def. plur. flickorna the girls. 

29. THE GENITIVE. Swedish has the same cases as 
English. The genitive is made by adding s to the 
indefinite or definite base-form, both singular and plural. 
No apostrophe is used. See examples in § 35. 

Note. — In Swedish as in English, adjectival words (e. g. adjec- 
tives, adjective pronouns, indefinite article) take no genitive end- 
ing; as, en liten fiickas doc'ia a little girl's doll, min larari'nnas 
stol my teacher's chair, denna flick as syster this girl's bister. 

30. In English the genitive case is normally used 
to express possession or connection only in the case of 
living beings. In Swedish it is freely used also of in- 
animate objects; as, 

Animate: the girl's hat jlickans hatt 

' Inanimate: the color of the book bokctis farg 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

31. The First Declension (plur. -or) contains only 
nouns of common gender. To this declension belong 
almost all nouns that end in -a} The plural is formed 
by dropping -a and adding -or; as, flicka girl, \A\\r . flickor ; 
lampa lamp, plur. lampor. 

1 The principal words ending- in - a that do not belong to the first 
declension are the neuters dga eye, and ora ear, (see § ™«) an d a few nouns 
of common gender; as, historia story, which belongs to the third declension. 



Ill 



FIRST DECLENSION 



15 



Note. — This declension contains also a few nouns not ending 
in a: ros (def. rosen, plur. rosor) rose, vdg (def. vdgen, plur. 
vdgor) wave, toffel (def. toffeln x , plur. tojflor 2 ) slipper. 

32. DEFINITE FORM. The definite sing, adds -n; the 
def. plur. adds -?ia; as, lampan, lamporna> 

33. Examples of the First Declension: gata street, 
kvinna woman. 



INDEFINITE 


DEFINITE 


INDEFINITE 


DEFINITE 


SING, gata * 


gat an 


kvinna 


kvinnan 


Gen. gatas 


gatans 


kvinnas 


kvinnans 


PLUR. gator 


gatorna 


kvinnor 


kvimwrna 


Gen. gators 


gatomas 


kvinnors 


kvinnoriias 



ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS. 

34. An adjective modifying a noun of either gender 
in the plural adds -a to the original form; as, langa ga- 
tor long streets, gatorna aro langa the streets are long. 

35. So also possessive pronouns when denoting posses- 
sion of more than one object: plur. mina, dzna, era (sing, 
and plur.), vara. 

36. For the third person the genitives ham his, hen- 
nes her, hers, dess its (gen. of den, det), deras their, 
theirs, are used in place of possessive pronouns. These 
genitives, not being adjectival forms, are invariable, and 
take no ending when used with neuter or plural nouns. 

37- The plural of demia is dessa these. 

38- Adjective inflection summarized: 

COMMON NEUTER COMMON NEUTER 

Sing, unchanged -t stor large stort 

Plur. -a stora 



1 Cf. § 43, note 1, (b). 

2 Cf. \ 42, note 2. 



16 FIRST DECLENSION ITI 

IV,). PRONUNCIATION: om\farg\sjunga. In genitives 
(as, sfo/s), where one of the consonants following the 
vowel is an inflectional ending, the vowel is not short, 
if long in the base-form. 

40. ACCENT: (i) All forms of all words in the first 
declension have the grave accent, except that rosen (from 
ros) and vdgen (from v&g) have acute accent (see §JJ5-) 
So also toffel and its def. form toffeln. However, the 
plurals of these words, rosor, vdgor, toff lor, have grave 
accent. 

(2) The plural of adjectives has grave accent; as, 
I dug a, m in a, manga. 

(3) Verbs with the first syllable unaccented (as, bcrdtta) 
have acute accent in all forms in the greater part of 
Sweden. 

(4) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, bcra'tta, 
fagel and under have acute accent. 

41. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Dessa, as the singular denna 
(n. detta), is in the spoken language followed by a noun 
in the definite form. Instead of dessa, the spoken lan- 
guage usually, and literature sometimes, employs de ha'r. 
Cf. § 13, 1. 

(2) The spoken language usually substitutes a prepo- 
sitional phrase for the genitive in the case of inanimate 
objects. See § jgj. 

(3) In the spoken language the use of the genitive 
dess is avoided. 

(4) In the spoken language the possessive pronouns 
are sometimes placed after the noun, which is in the 
definite form except in the case of words indicating rela- 
tionship. When used in the genitive case, the pronoun, 
and not the noun takes the ending -s; as, vdnnen min 
my friend, far min my father, bror mins b'dcker my 
brother's books. 



Ill PRONOI'NvS 17 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — The following words belonging to the First Declension 
have been given in previous vocabularies: blomma, fiicka, gata, 
kvinna, lampa. 

In the following vocabularies the declension is indicated by 
Arabic numerals. Words belonging to a declension not yet treated, 
are left uq lesiguated. The declension of these is indicated in the 
notes preceding the vocabularies in Lessons IV, VI, VII and VIII. 

bera'tta (sing, -ar) tell, relate larari'nna (1) (lady) teacher 

bok book manga plur., many (much) 

deras their, theirs om about, in, during 

dess its prinse'ssa (1) princess 

docka (1) doll ros (1) rose 

duva (1) dove, pigeoji saga (1) tale, story, fairy-tale 

flyga {sing, -er) fly sjunga (sing, -er) sing 

fura (1) fir-tree skog forest, tvoods 

fagel bird skola (1) school 

farg color syster sister 

gren branch toffel (1) slipper 

bans his under under 

hatt hat vag (1) wave 

henries her, hers vaxa (sing, -er) grow 

EXERCISE III. 

A. 1. En liten fagel sitter pa gren en och sjunger 1 . 
2. Furorna aro stora 3. Duvan flyger till skogen. 
4. Lararinnan ar i skolan. 5. Hon berattar en saga 
om en vacker prinsessa. 6. Blommorna vaxa i skogen. 

7. Eararinnans syster ar i skogen och plockar 1 blommor. 

8. Hennes fagel har en vaeker farg. Den ar bla. 
9 Gossen sitter och skriver 1 i en stor bok. 10. Han 
skriver om Sverige. n. Dessa rosor aro roda. 12. Ar 



1 In cases of this kind English omits the conjunction and xises a par- 
ticiple for the second verb. 



1 8 FIRST DECLENSION III 

din dockas hatt brun eller rod? 13. Tofflorna aro under 
ert bord. 14. Aro vagorna mycket stora ? 15. Flickor- 
nas lararinna sitter och talar 1 om Sverige. 16. Blom* 
morna aro pa din lararinnas bord. 

B. 1. The girls' teacher is sitting under a large 
branch. 2. She is telling a story about a little bird. 
3. Is the story beautiful? 4. Where do these roses grow? 
5. Do many fir-trees grow in Sweden? 6. The girl's 
doll has a blue hat. 7. Have the teachers many flowers? 
8. This wave is not large. 9. His slippers are red. 
10. Are their pigeons flying to the woods? 11. Is the 
woman's letter on my table? 12. Your sister is speak- 
ing about the color of the book. 13. The girl's doll has a 
beautiful house. 14. My sister's teacher lives in their 
house. 



1 See foot note p. 1' 



IV SECOND DECLENSION 19 

LESSON IV. 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

42. The Second Declension (plur. -ar) contains only 
nouns of common gender. To this declension belong: 

(1) A large number of monosyllabic nouns ending 
in a consonant; as, stol chair, hast horse. 

(2) A few monosyllabic nouns ending in a vowel; 
as, sj'd lake, a river. 

(3) Most nouns of common gender ending in unac- 
cented -e, -el, -en, -er\ as, gosse boy, fagel bird, socken par- 
ish, syster sister. 

(4) Nouns ending in -dom, -ing, -ling, -ning, -nung 
and a few other suffixes; as, sjukdom sickness, konung 
king, morgan morning, sommar summer, fjdril butterfly. 

Note. — 1. Nouns ending in unaccented -e drop this before add- 
ing -ar; as, gosse, plur. gossar. 

2. Nouns ending in unaccented -el, -en, -er drop the vowel of 
the suffix before adding -ar; as, fagel, plur. faglar; socken, plur. 
socknar; syster, plur. systrar. 

3. Also in a few other cases the vowel of a suffix is dropped 
before -ar; as, sommar summer, plur. somrar; morgon morning, 
plur. morgnar; a/ton evening, plur. aftnar; djcivul devil, plur. 
djavlar. 

4. Moder mother, and dotter daughter, also modify the root 
vowel (see #2), plur. nibdrar, dottrar. 

5. Moder is generally contracted to mor in the indefinite sing. 
— The plur. penningar money, is contracted to pengar (def. peng- 
ama). — Herre gentleman, becomes herr ("Mr.") when used before 
a proper noun 1 or before another title. — Konung king, has also 
the form kung. 

43 DEFINITE FORM. The definite sing, adds -en or 
-11; the def. plur. adds na. 



1 So also furste prince, but furst Bismarck: cf. § 22, note 2. 



2<J 



SECOND DECLENSION 



IV 



Note. — i. The ending -;/ is used: (a) after vowels; as, gosse, 
gossen; a river, def. an; (b) after unaccented -el, -er; as, f age hi, 
system. 

2. A few suffixes ( •//, -»/, -ar) take either -en or -n; as, som»iar{e)n, 
djavul{ e)n, fjdrih e )n. 

3. Herre has def. Herren when it means "the Lord", but herrn 
when it means "the gentleman". 

4. Some nouns ending in -en drop the vowel of the suffix and 
add -en; as, socken parish, def. socknen. But of froken young 
lady, and a few other words, the definite form in the singular is 
the same as the indefinite. 

5. In books -ne is frequently met with as the def. ending of 
the plural. While most writers of the present day always use -na, 
some employ -ne with nouns referring to persons of the male sex; 
others, with all nouns whose plural ends in -ar. Until recently, 
the ending -ne was used much more than now, and in the works 
of the older writers, it is regularly employed with a certain class 
of nouns. 

44. Examples of this declension are: hatt hat, a river, 
osse boy, fdgel bird, socken parish, froken young lady, 
mo{de)r mother, morgon morning, sommar summer, fjaril 
butterfly. 



INDEFINITE 


DEFINITE 


INDEFINITE 


DEFINITE 


Sing. 


hatt 


hatten 


a 


an 


Plur. 


h attar 


k attar 7? a 


dar 


darn a 


Sing 


gosse 


gossen 


fdgel 


fdgeln 


Plur. 


gossar 


gossarna 


fdg/ar 


fag lam a 


Sing. 


socken 


socknen 


froken 


froken 


Plur. 


socknar 


socknarna 


fro knar 


ffdknarna 


Sing. 


mo(de)? 


■ modern 


morgon 


morgonen 


Plur. 


m'ddrar 


m'odrarna 


morgnar 


morgnariia 


Sing. 


sommar 


som7?iar{e)n 


fjaril 


fj "aril \e) n 


Plur. 


somrar 


somrarna 


fjdrilar 


fj'drilarna 



Note. — The genitive, which is always regular, is omitted here 
and in the following paradigms. 



IV SECOND DECLENSION 21 

VERBS. 

45* Past tense of vara and ha(va): 

Sing, jag, etc., var jag, etc., hade 

Plur. z'z voro vi hade 

I voren I haden 

de voro de hade 

46- ORTHOGRAPHY: sommar, somrar. Observe the 
small initial letter in titles; as, fro ken, fru, herr {fohan- 
sso?i). When Herre, def. Herren means "Lord," it is 
capitalized. 

47- PRONUNCIATION: konnng , socken, hade, om, mor- 
gon, morgnar, djdvnl, sjnk, sjo. Sjon, def. of sjo, is pro- 
nounced with a short vowel. 

48- ACCENT: (i) Observe that the def. sing, of 
monosyllables ending in a consonant {stolen, haste?i) has 
acute accent, while the plural, both indefinite and 
definite, has grave accent {stolar, hdstar; stolarna, hastarna.) 

(2) Some nouns of the Second Declension with the 
suffix el have acute accent in the indef. and def. sing. 
(fdgel, fdgeln)) others have grave accent. — All nouns 
with the suffix -en have the acute in the indef. and def. 
sing. So also those ending in -er, with the exception of 
moder, dotter and syster. All these nouns have grave 
accent in the plural, according to the rule. 

(3) For the accent of verbs, see § JJ- 

(4) Of the words mentioned in this lesson fdgel, socken, 
over and Bjbrkman have acute accent. Pengar has acute, 
but the longer form penningar has grave accent. 

49- COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Kung is more common in 
the spoken than in the written language. 

(2) Of sommar(e)n, fjdril(e)n, djav7il(e)n, the longer 
form is used in the literary language, the shorter, in the 
spoken language. 



22 SECOND DECLENSION IV 

(3) Mor is more common in the spoken language than 
in literature. 

(4) In the spoken language the indefinite form of 
socken may be used also as the definite. 

(5) In the spoken language -ne does not occur in the 
use mentioned in § 43, note 5. 

(6) In Svealand drottning is generally pronounced 
dronning. 

(7) Remember that the spoken language says vi, etc., 
var. See § 27, 1. This holds good for all tenses. 

(8) In easy speech var is pronounced va and aldrig, 
aldri. Instead of dag, dage?i, dagar, easy speech employs 
da, dan, dar. In some parts of Sweden, dotter is pro- 
nounced doter. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — The following words belonging to the Second Declension 
have been given in previous vocabularies: fagel, gosse, gren, hatt, 
hast, skog, stol, syster. 

afton (2) evening; i afton fran from 

this evening; om aftonen froken (2) miss, (young') 

in the evening lady, Miss 

aldri g never hem ma at home 

bade. . . .och both. . . .and herre (2) ge?itlema?i, master; 
dag (2) day; i dag to-day; herr Mr. 

om dagen in the day-time hos with, by, at the house of 

djavul (2) devil komma (sing, -er) come 

dotter (2) daughter konung, kung (2) king 

drottning (2) queen moder, mor (2) mother 

fjaril (2) butterfly morgon (2) morning; pa mor- 
fru (2) wife, lady, Mrs. gonen in the — , this — 



IV SECOND DECLENSION 23 

om in, during, about socken (2) parish 

penningar, petigar (2) plur. sommar (2) summer; i — 
money this — / om -en in the — 

sjuk sick, ill a (2) river 

sjukdom (2) sickness over over, across 

sjo (2) lake, sea 

EXERCISE IV. 

A. 1. Konungen och drottningen bo i Stockholm. 
2. Var ar Stockholm? 3. Min syster var hos froken 
Bjorkman i dag. 4. Har ar ett brev fran herr och fru 
Johansson. 5. Froken var icke hemma. 6. Hade de 
manga pengar? 7. Dessa socknar ha manga sjoar. 
8. Fageln sitter pa grenen och sjunger. 9. Pengarna aro 
hemma. 10. Hade hon manga dottrar ? 11. Fjarilen 
sitter pa blomman. 12. Faglarna flyga over an. 13. Bade 
herrn och frtin voro hemma i dag pa morgonen 1 . 

B. 1. Sweden has many large lakes and many rivers. 
2 Your mother was not at home. 3. Where are the 
butterflies? 4. Are the doves flying across the lake? 
5. Mr. and Mrs. Lind do not live there. 6. The horses 
are comirg from the river. 7. The lake is beautiful in 
the summer. 8. The girls' mother was sick. 9. Does 
Miss Bjorkman live with Mrs. Lind? 10. The gentle- 
man's sister is coming 2 this evening. 11. Where does 
the King of Sweden live? 12. The boy had many 
butterflies. 13. The parish is not large. 14. Mrs. Lind's 
daughters were never at home in the evening. 



1 I dag pa morgonen this morning. 

2 Both English and Swedish sometimes use the present to indicate 
future time, as here. 



24 THR ADJECTIVE V 

LESSON V. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

50- INDEFINITE. The forms of the adjective given in 
the previous lessons (§§ 2, 3, 34) are used only when the 
accompanying noun has indefinite meaning or when the 
adjective is a predicate adjective. This is called the in- 
definite form of the adjective. 

51. DEFINITE. An adjective modifying a noun that has 
the definite article employs a special form. This is called 
the definite form of the adjective. The definite form of 
the adjective has the ending -a for both genders, sin- 
gular and plural; as, stora. 

52. THE PRFPOSITIVE DEFINITE ARTICLE. Further, 
this definite form of the adjective (followed by 'a noun with 
the definite article) is regulaily preceded by another 
definite article, which is called the prepositive definite 
article. The article appended to the noun (see § 14) is 
known as the postpositive definite article . The forms of the 
prepositive definite article 1 are: 

COMMON NEUTER 

Sing, den det 



Plur. de 

53. „ SUMMARY. When used with a noun that has 
definite form, the adjective must be put in the definite 
form (-a) and is preceded by the prepositive definite 
article; as, den vita hasten the white horse, det /toga /inset 
the high house, de langa gator na the long streets. 

Note. — Further details about the formation and use of the 
definite and indefinite adjective will be given in a later lesson. 



1 Observe that the prepositive definite article is identical in form with 
the personal pronoun den, det, de. 



kbpte 


bodde 


kbpte 


bodde 


kbpten 


bodden 


kbpte 


bodde 



V VERBS— PRESENT TENSE 25 

VERBS. 

54. The PAST TENSE OF WEAK VERBS. Review hade 
in $ 42. Past indicative active of tala speak, bygga 
build, kbpa buy, bo live: 
Sing, jag, etc., talade byggde 
Plur. vi talade byggde 

1 taladen byggden 

de talade byggde 

The past tense of most Swedish verbs ends in -ade, 
-de, -te or -dde. Observe the dental consonant {d, t,) in 
each ending; cf. Kng. lose, lost; call, called). Such 
verbs are known as weak verbs. There is no change for 
person except in the second person plural, where -n is 
added. 

55 THE PAST TENSE OF STRONG VERBS. Review var 
in § 45. Past indicative active of sk?iva write: 

Sing, jag, etc., skrev 
Plur. vi skrevo 
I skreven 
de skrevo 
Some of the verbs most frequently used (though fewer 
in number) form their past tense by changing the root 
vowei; as, skriva: past skrev. No tense-sign is added. Cf. 
Eng. run, ran; break, broke. Such verbs are known as 
strong verbs. % 

Note. — Almost all strong verbs having i as the root vowel in 
the pres. inf., have e in the past tense. Those having some other 
root vowel than i in the pres. inf., have some other vowel than e 
in the past tense. The various systems of vowel change in the 
formation of the past tense of strong verbs will be treated in later 
lessons. 

5G. Verbs ending in 
-r in pres. sing. ind. act. have past tense in -dde, 
-ar in pres. sing. ind. act. have past tense in -ade, 



26 VERBS V 



er in pres. sing. ind. 


act. 


have past in J -te 

/ no tense sign 


Examples are: 






PRES. SING. 




PAST SING. 




bor 




bodde 


WEAK - 


talar 
bygger 




talade 
byggde 




kbper 




kbpte 


STRONG 


sk river 




skrev 



57 ORTHOGRAPHY. Observe that proper adjectives and 
nouns derived from proper adjectives are written with a 
small initial letter; as, svensk, tysk. 

58. PRONUNCIATION: den, van, vem, nej , det, son, Gbte- 
bo'rg, kbpa, hbgt (n. of hog). Observe the change in the 
quantity of the vowel in bo, bodde. 

59- ACCENT: For the accent of the def. form of adjec- 
tives, cf. § 40, 2. — For the accent of verbs, cf. § 26, 2. 

60. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) The spoken language avoids 
the use of endast, employing in place of it bara, which 
is also frequently used in books. 

(2) Det and de are usually pronounced da and di, 
respectively. When used as the sign of the infinitive, 
att is generally pronounced a. Observe the similar pro- 
nunciation of av in (4) below, and of och ($ 13, 4). 

(3) The definite staden is in the spoken language 
usually shortened to stan, and in easy speech stad is 
pronounced sta. 

(4) In easy speech kbpte (past of kbpa) is pronounced 
kbpte; observe that there is in this case change in the 
quality as well as in the quantity of the b. In easy 
speech av is in some parts of Sweden pronounced a, in 
others, av. 



V ADJECTIVES 27 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — The following weak verbs have occurred in previous 
vocabularies: bera'tta (-ade), bo (-dde), tala ( ade), vaxa (-te). 
In the case of verbs forming their past tense in a way already 
discussed, the past tense will be indicated instead of the pres. 
sing.; see \ 56. 

att conj. that, to {with inf.) svart black 

av of, from son son 

bro (2) bridge stad city 

bygga (-de) build svensk Swedish; svenska the 
den {n. det, phcr. de) the Swedish language; pa -a in 

endast only Swedish; en svensk a Swede 

flagga (1) flag svar hard, difficult, severe 

gul yellow tro (-dde) think, believe 

hog high, tall tycka (-te) think {= be of the 

ja yes opinion) , fancy; tycka o'm like 

kopa ( te) buy tysk German; -a the German 

lida (led) suffer language; pa -a in German 

ligga {sing, -er) lie, vem who?, whom? 

be situated vit vuhite 

nej no van friend 

rida (red) ride vani'nna (1) {lady) friend 

EXERCISE V. 

A. 1. Ar det stora huset ditt? Ja, det ar mitt. 
2. Sveriges flagga ar bla och gul. 3. Jag tycker om 
den svenska flaggan. 4. Tycker ni icke att den ar 
mycket vacker? 5. Min van byggde det hoga huset. 
6. Tror du att din vaninnas mor kommer 1 i dag? 7. Gote- 
borg 2 ar en stor stad. Var ligger Goteborg? 8. Skrev 
du ett brev pa tyska? 9. Tycken I om att bo i staden ? 
10. Var liar du den gula rosen? Den ligger pa det 
vita bordet. 11. Vi tyckte att de talade svenska. 12. Vem 



1 Cf. note to 10 in exercise IV, B. 

2 Gotebo'rsr, the eitv of Gothenburg 



28 ADJECTIVES V 

byggde bron over an? 13. Tycker ni icke att denna 
bloinma ar vacker? 14. Deu stora flaggan ligger pa din 
lararinnas bord. 15. Tyckte ni att staden var vacker? 
16. Jag trodde att han var var van. 17. Modern trodde 
att hennes son var sjuk. 18. Vi kopte de vita duvorna 
i dag pa morgouen. 19. De vita fjarilarna sitta pa 
blommorna. 20. Deras son led av en mycket svar sjuk- 
dom. 21. Gossarna redo pa den svarta hasten. 

B. 1. His mother was not there. 2. Did not the boys 
write a long letter? 3. Did you (plur.) live in the city? 
4. The red flowers grew in the woods. 5. I picked the 
red rose this morning. 1 6. Do you not think that the 
Swedish flag is beautiful? 7. The birds are flying under 
the bridge. 8. Who bought the red slippers? 9. The 
girls were writing a letter to the Swedish princess. 
10. Do you like the white flowers? No, but I like the 
red roses. 11. Do yon think that their mother is at 
home to-day? 12. The lamp is on the yellow table. 
13 My sister's friend does not speak Swedish. She 
speaks only German. 14. The blue flag is on the bridge. 
15. Is the large lake beautiful? 16. The German gentle- 
man wrote a letter in Swedi>h. 17. Who built the large 
yellow house? 18. They lived in this parish. 19. Were 
you (plur.) speaking German? No, we were speaking 
Swedish. 20. We bought the yellow birds in the city. 
21. The high house is hers. Do you think that her 
house is pretty? 

1 Cf. IN in exercise A. 



VI THIRD DRCLENvSION 29 

LESSON VI. 
THIRD DECLENSION. 

61. The Third Declension (plur. -er) contains nouns of 
both genders, but primarily nouns of common gender. 
Almost all neuter nouns of this declension are of foreign 
origin, as are also very many of the nouns of common 
gender. To this declension belong: 

(1) Many monosyllabic nouns (almost all of common 
gender) ending in a consonant; as, bok book, farg color, 
stad city, vein friend, vin (n.) wine. 

(2) Many polysyllabic nouns ending in various suffixes 1 ; 
as, hdndelse occurence, konstndr 3 artist, ma?iad month, 
bagerl' (n.) bakery, muse' am (n.) museum. 

Note. — 1. Nouns ending in unaccented -e drop this vowel 
before adding -er; as, biblioteka'rie librarian, plur. biblioteka'rier; 
hdndelse occurence, plur. hdndelser; fiende enemy, plur. fiender. 

2. The few nouns of this declension that end in unaccented -el, 
-er drop the vowel of the suffix upon adding -er; as, muskel mus- 
cle, plur. muskier; neger negro, plur. negrer. 

3. Nouns in -ium and -eum drop the ending -um before adding 
-er; as, laborato'rium laboratory, plur. laborato'rier; muse' urn, 
museum, plur. muse'er. 

4. A number of words (chiefly monosyllabic) of this declension 
modify the root vowel (see \ "); as, hand hand, plur. hdnder; son 
son, plur. sbner; bonde peasant, plur. bbfider. 

5. In a few words a long vowel of the singular is shortened in 
the plural; as, get goat, plu*\ getter; not nut, plur. nbtter. Some 
have both shortening and modification of the root vowel; as, bok 
book, plur. bbeker; fot foot. plur. f otter. 



1 The commonest suffixes are: (1) common-gender, -else. -het. -skaj>, 
-ad. -unci. -nlir. besides a large variety of suffixes in words of foreign origin; 
(2) neuter -eri. -/. -e. -eum, -ium. 

2 Konstnlir may also be pronounced with the stress on the final syllable. 



30 THIRD DECLENSION VI 

6. A few loan-words, especially all that end in -or, shift the 
accent in the plural; as do'ktor doctor, plur. dokto'rer; profe'ssor 
professor, plur. professo'rer. 

7. Special attention is called to the fact that the Third Declen- 
sion contains a very large number of loan-words. Most common- 
gender nouns of foreign origin in Swedish, and some neuters, 1 take 
their plural in er. If polysyllabic, and most of the nouns of for- 
eign origin are polysyllabic, they are generally accented on some 
syllable other than the first; as, arme" army, biblioteka'rie libra- 
rian, konstna'r artist, profe'ssor professor, solda't soldier, bageri' 
n. bakery, muse' 11m n. museum. Accordingly, most common- 
gender nouns that do not accent the first syllable belong to the 
Third Declension. 

C)2 DEFINITE FORM. The definite sing, adds -en (-n) 
or -et (-/) according to the gender; the def. plur. adds -?ia. 

Note. — 1. Nouns in -el, -er, -or add -n; as, muskeln the muscle, 
negern the negro, profe'ssorn the professor. 

2. Common-gender nouns ending in unaccented -e take -n; as, 
biblioteka'rie, def. biblioteka'rien; hand else, def. handelsen. Com- 
mon-gender nouns ending in an accented vowel take either -en or 
-n; as, arnie' army, def. arme'(e)n; fotografi' photograph, def. 
fotografi' (e)n. See \ 67 (1). 

3. The very few neuters of this declension that have an un- 
accented vowel take -/; as, fdngelse 2 prison, def. fdngehet. 
Neuter nouns ending in an accented vowel take -et; as, bageri' bak- 
ery, def. bageri' et. 

4. Nouns in -turn and -eutn drop the ending -um before adding 
-et: as, laborato'rium, def. laborato'riet : muse' um, def. muse'et. 

63- Examples of this declension are; farg color, bok 
book, van friend, vin (n.) wine, manad month, hdndelse 
occurrence, muskel muscle, solda't soldier, doktor doctor, 
fotografi' photograph, bageri' (11.) bakery, museum (n.) 
museum. 



1 Of the remaining neuters of foreign origin those ending in a vowel 
belong to the Fourth Declension, and those ending in a consonant, to 
the Fifth. 

2 With very few exceptions, words with the suffix -else have common 
gender. See p. 29, foot-note 1. 



VI 



THIRD DECLENSION 



31 



INDEFINITE 


DEFINITE 


INDEFINITE 


DEFINITE 


Sing. 


farg 


fdrgen 


bok 


boke?i 


Pair. 


fiirger 


fdrgerna 


docker 


bbckerna 


Sing. 


van 


va?inen 


vin (n.) 


vinet 


Plur. 


v tinner 


vdnnerna 


viner 


vinerna 


Sing. 


manad 


manade?i 


hdndelse 


handelsen 


Plur. 


manader 


md?iaderna 


hdndelser 


hdndelserna 


Sing. 


muskel 


muskeln 


so Ida' t 


sol da' ten 


Plur. 


muskier 


muskler?ia 


solda'ter 


solda'terna 


Sing. 


do k tor 


doktorn 


fotografi' 


fotografi '(e)n 


Plur. 


dokto'rer 


dokto' rerna 


fotografi'er 


fotografi' erna 



muse'um (n.) ?nuse'et 



?nuse er muse erna 

vanner, vdnnen. In Sweden 



Sing, bageri' (n.) bageri'et 
Plur. bageri'er bageri' erna 

64. ORTHOGRAPHY: van, 
Upsala is frequently spelled Uppsala, 

65. PRONUNCIATION, som, get. Observe the change of 
the vowel in quality as well as in quantity in not, nbtter. 

66. ACCENT: (1) Monosyllables of the Third Declension 
ending in a consonant have acute accent in the def. sing.; 
as, fdrgen, boken, vinet. In the plural most of these have 
grave accent; as, fdrger, vdnner, s'bner. All nouns that 
modify or shorten the root-vowel of the singular in form- 
ing the plural (except shier) and a few other nouns have 
acute accent; as, booker, stiider, getter, nbtter. Hven 
bonde, w T hich in the singular has grave accent, has the 
acute in the plural, bonder; Many nouns have either 
grave or acute, generally in different localities; as, viner, 
saker. 

(2) Nouns accented on the last syllable in the indef. 
sing, have acute accent both in the def. sing and in the 
indef. and def. plural; as, solda'ten, solda'ter, solda'terna; 
fotografi' en, fotografi'er, fotografi' erna ; bageri'et, bageri' er y 
baoeri'erna. 



THIRD DECLENSION VI 

All nouns of the Third Declension ending 1 in -el, 
-cr have acute accent in all forms, indef. and def., both 
singular and plural; as, muskei, neger. 

(4) Professor has grave accent, but professo'rer acute. 
Doktor may have either acute or grave accent in the 
singular; in the plural it has the acute (dokto f rer) . 

(5) Museum and laborato' rium may have either grave 
or acute accent. 

(6) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, neger, 
muskei and Ame'rika have acute accent, and doktor, mu- 
se um and laborato' rium may have acute or grave. 

67- COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Forms like fotografi en occur 
primarily in books, those like fotografi'?i primarily in the 
spoken language. Except in the case of those ending in 
-*", the shorter form is generally used also in literature. 

(2) Neuters ending in an accented vowel frequently 
have only -t in the def. form. 

(3) In easy speech brod is pronounced brb. — Hand 
s in easy speech pronaunced hann, which is used also as 
the def., for handen. — The def. sing, of mdnad is short- 
ened to mcinan, the plural to mdnar. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — The following nouns belonging to the Third Declension 
have occurred in previous vocabularies: bok, farg, son, stad, \an. 
arme' (3) army fot (3) foot 

bageri' ?i. (3) bakery fotografi' (3) photograph 

bibliotek n. library fangelse n. (3) prison 

biblioteka'rie (3) librarian for for, to 
bonde (3) peasant get (3) goat 

brod n bread hand (3) hand 

doktor (3) doctor handelse (3) occurrence 

dricka {sing, -er) drink konslnar 1 (3) artist 

fiende (3) enemy laborato'rium n. (3) laboj-atory 



I See page 29, foot-note 2. 



VI THIRD DECLENSION 33 

nmse'um n. (3) museum profe'ssor (3) professor 

muskel (3) muscle pa on, in 

manad (3) month sak (3) things matter, affair 

neger (3) negro solda't (3) soldier 

nu now sora 1 who, whom, that, -which 

not (3) nut vin n. (3) wine 

ovan (3) {personal) enemy 

EXERCISE VI. 

A. i. Konungen bar manga soldater i armen. 2. De 
svenska bonderna ha icke manga getter. 3. Doktorn 
ocb konstnaren dricka vin. 4. Professorn, som du tala- 
de ora, ar pa laboratoriet. 5. Bibliotekarien ocb pro- 
fessorerna voro vanner, men nu aro de ovanner. 6. Ne- 
gern berattade bandelsen for fienderna. 7. Soldaterna 
kopte brod i bageriet. 8. Var voro notterna? 9. Stock- 
holm, Goteborg och Malmo aro svenska stader. 10. Bib- 
lioteket i Uppsala ar stort. n. Den tyska herrn har 
bade svenska och tyska bocker. 12. Fienden red till sta- 
den pa bondens hast. 13. Doktorn ar pa museet. 14. 
Fotografien ligger pa bordet. 15. Fienderna voro i sta- 
den en manad. 16. Musklerna i handerna aro icke stora. 
17. Den sjuka kvinnan ar hos doktorn. 18. Bonderna 
ha icke manga bocker. 19. Negrerna i Amerika 2 bo i 
staderna. 20. Gossar och flickor tycka om fotografier. 
21. Professorns bocker aro hos bibliotekarien. 22. Bage- 
rierna i denna stad aro icke stora. 

B. 1. The prison in this city is not beautiful. 2. The 
peasants picked nuts in the woods. 3. The professor 
was in the library and the doctor was in the laboratory. 

1 Indeclinable relative pronoun. It can be used only substantively, but 
it may refer to nouns of either gender and number, and may be used as sub- 
ject or object. When a preposition is used, it regularly follows the relative 
(as generally in spoken English). 

'2 Ame'rika. 



31 THIRD DECLENSION VI 

4. The king has a horse which is very beautiful. 5. The 
birds are sitting on the girl's hand. 6. The soldiers are 
drinking wine. 7. The peasants are giving the enemies 
bread. 8. The boy's hands and feet are not large. 9. The 
professors are not in the city in the summer. 10. The 
enemy does not like our armies. 11. The librarian and 
the doctor are enemies. 12. The negroes are giving the 
boys nuts. 13. Do the women buy bread in the bak- 
eries? 14. Sweden does not have many large cities. 15. 
The artist and his friends were in the museum. 16. Is 
the photograph beautiful? 17. Where are the labora- 
tories? 



VII FOURTH DECLENSION 35 

LESSON VII. 

FOURTH DECLENSION. 

68 The Fourth Declension (plnr. -n) contains only 
neuter nouns. To this declension belong: 

(i) A few monosyllabic neuters ending in a vowel; 
as, bi bee, fro seed, knd knee. 

(2) Neuters ending in an unaccented vowel (chiefly 
-e); as, rike kingdom, apple apple, fbrh&' llande circum- 
stance, hjdrta heart, pia'?w piano. 

69- DEFINITE FORM. The def. sing, adds -et or -t; 
the def. plur. adds -a 1 . 

Note. — 1. Nouns ending in an unaccented vowel take -t; as, 
apple, def. applet; hjdrta, def. hjartat; piano, def. pianot. Those 
ending in an accented vowel take -et or -t; as, knd, def. knd(e)t. 
See § 80 (1). 

2. Of hjdrta heart, the indef. plur. hjdrtan is used also as def. plur. 

70. Examples of this declension are: bi bee, apple 
apple, hjdrta heart, pia'no piano. 





INDEFINITE 


DEFINITE 


INDEFINITE DEFINI' 


Sing. 


bi 


Met 


apple applet 


Plur. 


bin 


bina 


dpplen dpplena 


Sing. 


hjdrta 


hjartat 


pia'no pia'not 


Plur. 


hjdrtan 


hjdrtan 

VERBS 


pia'non pia'nona 



71. In Swedish, as in English, there is a great vari- 
ety of vowel change in the formation of the past tense 
of strong^efbs. 2 (See § 55 and note). The most nu- 



1 Observe" that the resulting -na, while here embracing also the plural 
ending, is identical in form with the def. article of the plural in the first 
three declensions. 

2 E. g. in English: run, ran; eat. ate; fall, fell; shoot, shot; break, 
broke; tear, tore; bite, bit; drive, drove; bind, bound; sing, sang; give 
gave. 



;/> STRONG VERBS VII 



m ero ash- 


represented systems of vowel-change in Swedish 


are: 








PRESENT 


PAST PRESENT 


PAST 


CO"' 




e skriva write 


skrev 


(2) 7 




a, plnr. n finna find 


fann, plnr . fitnno 






( bjuda offer 


bjbd 


(3) *>y 




b J sjunga sing 


sjbng 






[flyga fly 


flog 



72. All strong verbs that have i, u or y as root-vowel 
in the infinitive 1 (and in the pres. sing.), form their past 
tense according to the systems given in § 71. To this 
there are only two exceptions: giva give, past gav past 
plnr. gdvo, and Hgga lie, past lag. These two verbs, 
and those having in the infinitive some other root-vowel 
than i, u or y, form their past tense according to various 
systems. As each of the last named systems is represent- 
ed by only from one to three verbs, these can best be 
learned individually. 

73- The past tense of all strong verbs is conjugated 
like skrev in § 55. Notice, however, that in system (2) 
the root-vowel of the past plur. differs from that of the 
past sing. This is the case also with a few of the verbs 
referred to in § 72; as, giva, past gav, past plnr. gdvo. 
Cf. var, plur voro in § 45. 
Sing, jag, etc., skrev fawn 
Plur. vi skrevo funno 

I skrev en funnen 

de skrevo funno 

NEGATIVES. 
74. Swedish has three words meaning "not": icke, ej 



bjbd 


sjbng 


flog 


bjodo 


sjbngo 


flog 


bj'dden 


sjbng en 


flbgen 


bjodo 


sjbngo 


flog 



1 For further illustrations see the note preceding the vocabulary of this 
lesson. 



VII FOURTH DECLENSION 37 

and inte. The literary language 1 employs icke, frequent- 
ly interspersing ej. The spoken language regularly uses 
inte. 

75. In place of ja yes, jo is used in answer to a 
question containing a negative. Of frequent occurrence 
is the expression jo vi'sst certainly, yes indeed. 

76, POSITION OF NEGATIVES. In principal clauses the 
negative is placed after the finite form of the verb, as 
in English, but in subordinate clauses it is placed before 
the finite form. Ex. Han dr icke hemma. He is not 
at home. Hon sdger att han icke dr hemma. She says 
that he is not at home. 

77- ORTHOGRAPHY: komma, kom, kommo. 

78. PRONUNCIATION: lova, sova, saga, Holgersson, k?id, 
hjdrta, Frithiof. Observe the change of consonant sound 
in giva, gav. 

79. ACCENT, (i) Monosyllables of the Fourth De- 
clension have acute accent both in the def. sing, and def. 
plur.; as, diet, bina. Words of more than one syllable 
have the grave accent in all forms (rike, riket, riken, ri- 
kena), with the exception of a few words (as, pia'no). 

(2) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, vatten, for- 
hdllande, ocksa and Frithiof have acute accent. 

80- COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Forms like kndet occur pri- 
marily in the literature, those like kndt primarily in the 
spoken language. 

(2) In the spoken language hjdrtana is used as the 
def. plur. of hjdrta. 

(3) As the plural verb-forms are not used in the spo- 
ken language, this has no vowel-change such as that 
of satt, plur. sutto. 

(4) In the spoken language sa may be used for sade. 



1 Prose. 



> s FOURTH' DECLENSION VII 

(5} lute is used instead of the literary icke and ty 
.^6) Aven is a literacy" Word 1 , in place of whicli ocksd, 
which also occurs in literature, is used in speaking. In 
easy speech med (pronounced ?na) is used. 'Aven is 
placed before the word it modifies, ocksd before or after, 
while vied, stands after its word. 

(7) lu easy speech god and trad are pronounced go, 
trd. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — "Rike", belonging to the Fourth Declension, has occurred 
in a preceding vocabulary. 

The strong verbs that have been given in previous vocabularies 
are: lida (past, led), rida (red), skriva (skrev), sitta (satt, plur. 
sutto), dricka (drack, plur. drucko), sjuuga (sjong), flyga (flog), 
giva (gav, plur. gavo), ligga (lag), komma (kom, 2 plur. kommo). 

arbeta (-ade) work jord (2) earth, ground 

arbete n. (4) work kna n. (4) knee 

barn n. 3 child lasa (-te) read 

bi 3 n. (4) bee lova (ade) promise 

bjuda (bjod) offer, invite lofte n. (4) promise 

da then, when minne n. (4) memory, remi- 

finna (fann, plur. i\ixmo)find ?iiscence 

fro n. (4) seed natt (3, plur. natter) night; 

forha'llande n. (4) circum- 0111 -en during the night; 

stajice, condition i natt 4 to-night 

god good naste n. (4) nest 

hem n. home; adv. , home pia'no n. (4) piano 

hjarta n. (4) heart resa (-te) travel, journey , go 

halla (holl) hold, keep sova (so\ 2 ) sleep 



1 Another literary word with the same meaning is ock, which is placed 
after the word it modifies. 

2 Observe that, while komma. and sova do not change the vowel in the past 
tense, they have the other characteristics of the strong verb. 

3 See§l, note 1. 

4 Never used with the meaning of "this evening", as is the Eng. to-night. 



VII FOURTH DECLENSION 39 

saga, ^irregular; -er, past vatten n. water 

sade) say apple n. (4) apple 

trad ;/. tree aven also 

EXERCISE VII. 

A. 1. Han lovade att skriva, men han boll icke 
loftet. 2. Han arbetade om natlen och sov om dagen. 
3. Konstnaren sade att han icke arbetade i dag pa 
morgonen. 4. Frona lago i jorden. 5. Duvorna flogo 
hem om aftonen. 6. Faglarna ha nasten i skogen. 
7. Barnen funno nastena. 8. Forhallandena i Sverige 
voro svara, da Johansson reste till Amerika. 9. Bon- 
derna bjodo soldaterna brod och vatten. 10. Barn tycka 
om pianon. 11. Bockerna lago pa ditt bord. 12 Bar- 
nen sutto i skolan och laste om Nils Holgersson. 
13. Fienderna lago i skogen och sovo. 14. Skrev icke 
professorn ett stort arbete om Sverige? 15. Vi tycka 
att pianot ar vackert. 16. Han sade att fageln icke var 
i ncistet. 17. Sade gossen att han icke tycker om att 
resa? 18. Gossarna drucko vatten. De gavo aven has- 
tarna vatten att dricka. 19. Sven sade att han icke tyc- 
ker om att plocka notter. 

B. 1. He says that the work is not difficult. 2. He 
liked to read good books when he was a little boy. 
3. Did these good apples grow on this tree? 4. The 
nights were very long then. 5. Where did the boys 
rind the nuts? 6. The bees were sitting on the flowers. 
7. The child was sitting on the doctor's knees. 8. Do 
bui-ternies have hearts? 9. Have you many books on 
your table? 10. The piano is both large and beautiful, 
ir. I thought that he came home this morning. 12. Do 
pigeons have nests in the woods? 13. The apples are 
good. 14. Tiie boys were reading Tegner's works in 



40 FOURTH DKCLENSION VII 

school 1 . They like to read "Frithiofs Saga." 15. He 
had many reminiscences from Sweden to talk about. 
16. Are the apples on this tree yours? 17. They prom- 
ised to work to-day. Did they keep this promise? 
18. The seed is very large. 19. Birds like seeds. 

20. The boy has a nest which he found in the woods. 

21. His home is also yours. 



1 In this case Swedish uses the definite form. 



VIII FIFTH DECLENSION 41 

LESSON VIII. 

FIFTH DECLENSION. 

81* In the Fifth Declension (plural without ending) 
the indef. plur. is identical in form with the indef. sing., 
except for the words in (3) below, which modify the 
root-vowel. Compare English "sheep", "swine", "deer". 
To this declension, which contains nouns of both genders 
(primarily neuters), belong: 

(1) Almost all neuters ending in a consonant; as, 
bord table, hus house, fdnster window, smultron wild 
strawberry, genus gender. 

(2) Nouns of common gender ending in -are and 
-ande; as, larare teacher, resande traveller, ordfdrande 
chairman. 

(3) A few nouns of common gender which have vowel- 
modification in the plural 1 ; as, broder brother, fader 
father, man man, gas goose, plur. broder, fader, man, 
gass. 

(4.) Nouns (chiefly of common gender) indicating 
measure 2 ; as, mil mile, fot 3 foot, turn inch, meter meter, 
kilo (11.) kilogram. Man has plur. man? when denoting 
a group of persons thought of as a whole; as, fern tusen 
man five thousand men. 

(5) Foreign nouns and names of peoples (common 
gender) ending in -er; as, bota'niker botanist, egy'ptier 
Egyptian. 

Note. — 1. The long vowel of the sing., besides being modified, 
is shortened in the plur. of gas, plur. gdss. 

2. Broder and fader are generally contracted to bror and far in 



1 Ct*. Eng: brother, brethren; man, men; goose, geese. 

2 Cf. Eng.: "I put in ten ton of coal last month." 

3 When fot does not indicate measure it follows the Third Declension, 
plur. fatter. When individuals are thought of, the plur. man is used. 



4^ FIFTH DECLENSION viir 

the indef . sing. Words in -are, when used before a proper noun, 
drop the -e ; as, kejsarc emperor, but kcjsar Wilhelm. Cf. \ 42 
note 5. 

$2. DEFINITE FORM. The def. sing, ends in -et (-/) 
or -en (-») according to the gender. The def. plur. 
ends in -en or -na. The plural form -eti is used for both 
genders when a consonant precedes, except that common- 
gender nouns ending in -er take -na. Also the nouns 
ending in a vowel take -na. Kx. broderna, bota 'nikerna , 
ordfbrandena . 

Note. — 1. Common-gender nouns ending in -e and -er take -n 
in the def. sing.; as, lararen, brodern, metern, bota'nikern. 

2. The few neuters ending in an unaccented vowel take -t; as, 
kilot the kilogram. 

3. Neuters ending in -us use the indef. sing, and plur. also as 
def. sing, and plur.; as, genus gender, indef. and def. sing, and plur. 

4. Almost all neuters ending in -el, -en, -er drop the vowel of the 
suffix before adding the sing, -et or the plur. -en; as, hagel, hail, def. 
sing, haglet, def. plur. haglen; vapen weapon, vapnet, vapnen; 
fonster window, fonstret, fonstren. 

5. Words in -are drop the e of -arena; as, lararna for lilrare- 
na. In books, but not in the spoken language, -ne is in this case 
frequently used to form the def. plural of nouns referring to per- 
sons of the male sex. This was the practice formerly more than 
now. Cf. # 43, note 5. 

83. Examples of the Fifth Declension are bord (11.) 
table, smultron (n ) wild strawberry, fonster (n.) window, 
genus (n.) gender, larare teacher, ordforande chairman, 
bota'niker botanist, 6ro(de)r brother, man man, gas goose. 

INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE 

Sing, bord (n.) bordet smultron (n.) smiUtronet 

Plur. bord borden smultron smultronen 

Sing, fonster (n ) fbnstret genus (n.) genus 

Plur. fonster fonstren genus genus 



I Vl'il FIFTH DECLENSION 43 

INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE 

Sing, larare lardren ordforande ordforanden 

Plur. larare lararna (lie) ordforande ordfdrandena 

Sing bota'niker bota'nikern bro(de)r brodern 

Plur. bota'niker bota' nikefna br'dder brbdema 

Sing, man mannen gas gasen 

Plur. man mannen gass gassen 

IRREGULARITIES IN DECLENSION. 

84. A few common-gender nouns (chiefly monosyllab- 
ic) ending in various vowels, form their plural by add- 
ing -r; as, ko cow, plur. kor; sko shoe, skor; td toe, 
tar; hustru wife, hustrur. .The def. sing, adds -n; the 
def. plur. adds -na; as, kpn, korna, htistrun, hustrurna. 

85. The two neuters bga and ora form their plural by 
dropping -a and adding on, plur. ogo?z, bro?i. The def. 
sing, adds -// the def. plur. adds -en; as, ogat, ogonen. 

86. Some nouns form their plural in several (in most 
cases, in two) different ways; as, tyg (5 or 3); see also 
the examples in § 88. In some instances there is a dif- 
ference in meaning between the different plur. forms; as, 
ft, plur. /otter or fot\ man, plur. man or man (see § 81, 
4, and foot-note 3). 

87- Proper names ending in an s sound do not add -s 
in the genitive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is 
used to indicate the case; as, Joha'nnes (older and bib- 
lical form of Johari) John, Joha'imes' Evangel Hum The 
Gospel According to St. John. 

88. FOREIGN NOUNS. Some loan-words retain their 
foreign plural; as, faktum fact, plur. fakta; exa'men exa- 
mination, plur. exa' mi?ia' ; neutrum neuter, plur. neutrer or 
?ieutra; prono'men pronoun, plur. prono'men, prono 'miner 1 



1 Notice the change of e to /, in accordance with Latin. 



44 FIFTH DECLENSION VIII 

or prono'mina. Of these the indefinite form is used also as 
definite, both in the singular and plural. But those that 
also have Swedish plurals may take the definite article; 
as, iieu tret, prono'minet. 

Some foreign nouns, especially biblical names, retain 
their foreign genitive; as, Matte' us Matthew, Matte' i evan- 
ge'lium The Gospel According to St. Matthew; Paulus 
Paul, Pauli brev The Epistle of Paul; Kristus Christ, 
gen. Krisfi; Jesus Jesus, gen. Jesu. 

89. ORTHOGRAPHY: man, mannen, man, mannen; 
hem, hemmet, hemmen; gas, but in the plural gass on 
account of the shortened vowel. 

90. PRONUNCIATION: prono'men, neutrum, Pauhis, 
Egy'pten, egy'ptier, karl, exa'men, htm, fern, kilo, kejsare, 
evange'iium, genus, Wilhelm. Observe the change in conr 
sonant sound of gas, gass. 

91. ACCENT, (i) In the fifth declension monosyllables 
of both genders that have more than one syllable in the 
def. form, have the acute both in the def. sing, and 
plural; as, huset, husen, (colloquial husena); mannen, 
7?ia?inen; korna. Also nouns that have the stress on the 
last syllable, have the acute in the def. .sing, and plural; 
as, bibliote' ket , bibliote'ken (colloquial biblioie' kena) . 

(2) Words of more than one syllable with acute accent 
take this in all forms; as, fbnster (sing, and plur.),/<?w- 
stret, fbnstren (colloquial fbnsterna) . 

(3) Almost all words ending in the suffixes -el, -en, 
■ er that belong to this declension, have the acute accent. 
Important exceptions are broder and fader, which, how- 
ever, have acute accent in the plural, broder, fader. 

(4) Of words mentioned in this lesson, the following 
have acute: genus, kUo, vatte?i, vapen, hagel, exa'men, pro- 
no' men , fbnster , meter, egy'ptier, Egy'pte?i, WUhelm, foha'n- 



VIII FIFTH DECLENSION 45 

7ies, Matte'us, Paulus, Gottland, Lappland. — Bota'niker, neu- 
trum and eva?ige' Hum may have either acute or grave 
accent. 

92. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Observe that -ne is not 
used for the def. plur. in the spoken language (see 53) . 

(2) In the spoken language, words ending in -are drop 
e in the def. sing; as, skomakarn. However, in Gota- 
land the uncontracted form is more usual. 

(3) In a large part of Sweden, neuters ending in a 
consonant drop the -t in the def. form; as, /inset } pro- 
nounced huse. 

(4) In a large part of Sweden -a is added to the def. 
plur. ending -en; as, hits, def. plur. husena. So also gas, 
def. plur. gdssena; oga, def. plur. bgona. 

(5) Neuters ending in -er almost always add -na in 
the def. plur. in the spoken language. Some of these 
frequently take -na also in the written language; as, 
fbnsterna for fbnstren . 

(6) In the case of many neuters (particularly foreign 
words) ending in a consonant, which have double plural 
forms (see § 86) belonging either to the Third or the 
Fifth Declension, the spoken language prefers the plurals 
in er, while the written language prefers the plurals 
without ending. 

(7) Far and bror are more common in the spoken lan- 
guage than in literature. Cf. § gj] 

(8) In place of man, plur. man, the spoken language 
generally uses kar/ 1 , both in meaning "man" and "hus- 
band". A plural manner is sometimes used in place of. 
man in the spoken language, when it means "husbands". 

(9) In easy speech Gottland and Lappland are pro- 
nounced Gottlan and Lappian, respectively. 

1 The 1 is silent and the vowel is long. 



46 



FIFTH DI'CLKXSION 



VIII 



VOCABULARY. 

Note. — The following nouns belonging to the fifth declension 
have occurred in previous vocabularies: barn, bibliotek, bord, brev* 
brod, hem, bus, trad, vatten; also fot (with the plural -er; see page 
41, foot-note 3. 

No declension is indicated for nouns that cannot readily be used 
in the plural. 



bota'niker (5) botanist 
broder, bror (5) brother 
egy'ptier (5) Egyptiaii 
evange'liutn ?i. (3) gospel 
exa'rnen {plur. examina) ex- 
amination 
fader, far (5) father 
faktum {plur. fakta) fact 
falla (foil) fall 
fern five 

fonster n. (5) windozv 
genus n. (5) gender 
gas (5) goose 

hagel 71. (5) hail, hailstone 
liustru {plur. -r) wife 
jordgubbe 1 (2) cultivated 



meter (5) meter {39 i?iches) 
mil (5) mile {6.8 Engl, miles) 
namn n. (5) name 
neutrum n. (3 or netitra) 

neuter 
ordforande (5) chairman 
prono'men n. (3, 5 or prono'- 

mina) pronoun 
resande (5) traveller 
sko {plur. -r) shoe 
skomakare (5) shoemaker 
smor 11. butter 

sm tilt 1011 7i. (5) wild straivberry 
turn (5) inch 
tusen thousa7id 
tyg 71. (5 or 3) cloth 
tva two 



strawberry 

kejsare (5) e77ipe7vr, Kaiser ta {plur. -r) toe 

kilo 71. (5) kilogra?n {2.2 lbs.) vapen 71. (5) weapon 

ko {plur. -r) cow oga 71. {plur. 6gon) eye 

l'arare (5) teacher ora 71. {plur. oron) ear 
man (5) 7na7i } husba7?d 

EXERCISE VIII. 

A. 1. Botanikern och bans broder voro i skogen och 
plockade smultron. 2. Nils Holgersson satt pa en 
gas och red over Sverige. Gassen reste manga mil om 

1 Gubbe means "old man." 



VIII FIFTH DECLENSION 47 

dagen 1 . De flogo fran Skane till Lappland. Gassen vo- 
ro aven pa Gottland. 3. Gottland ar en stor 6. Var 
ligger denna 6? 4. Egyptierna bo i Egypten 2 . 5. Bor 
icke kejsar Wilhelm i Berlin 3 ? 6. Soldaterna funno fien- 
dernas vapen under traden. 7. "Mitt" ar neutrum av 
pronominet "min". 8. Haglen folio till jorden om nat- 
ten, men de voro icke dar, da morgonen kom. 9. Ha 
gassen tar? 10. Barnen tyckte att examina voro svara. 
11. Fadern kopte skorna av skomakaren. 12. Kor ha 
stora 6gon. 13. Lararna sutto i skolan 4 och talade om 
barnen. 14. Kons namn ar icke vackert. 15. Notterna 
folio fran traden. 16. Tva resande kommo till Uppsala 
i dag pa morgonen. 17. Skomakarens hustru kopte fern 
kilo smor 5 av en bonde som har tva kor. 18. Gossens 
namn ar Johan. 19. Tycker ni om bruna ogon? 20. 
Grenen ar fern turn lang. 21. Svenskan har tva genus. 
22. "Oga" och "ora" aro neutra. 

B. 1. The examination was not difficult. 2. The peas- 
ants have cows and horses. 3. "Detta" is neuter of 
"denna". 4. Strawberries are red. 5. Botanists like 
flowers and trees. 6. The children's eyes are brown. 
7. Swedish children do not have brown eyes. 8. "Jag" 
and "du" are pronouns. 9. Trees, flowers and straw- 
berries grow in the woods in summer. 10. The birds 
flew from tree to tree. 11. The men found the weapons 
in the house. 12. The cows drank the water. 13. The 
lake is a mile long. 14. The emperor does not live in 
this city during the summer. 15. The woman bought 
five meters of 3 cloth. 16. Peasants do not buy butter. 



1 Many miles a day. 

2 Egy'pien. Egytt. 

3 Berli'n. 

4 See page 40, foot-note. 

5 Observe that Swedish does not use the genitive nor a preposition in 
such expressions. 



48 FIFTH DECLENSION VIII 

17. The geese drank the water which the peasant gave 
the cows. 18. The pronouns "han" and "hon" are not 
neuters. 19. The chairman's brothers are librarians. 
20. Do children like (cultivated) strawberries? 



IX SYNTAX OF THE NOl'N 49 

LESSON IX. 

SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 

93. THE GENITIVE. A few further illustrations of the 
more extensive use of the genitive in Swedish (see § 30) 
are: bordeis ben the legs of the table, husets tak the 
roof of the house, vid krigets slut at the end of the 
war, stjarnans fall the fall of the star, klassens larare 
the teacher of the class, klassens bdsta gosse the best boy 
in the class, en drans man a man of honor, vid drets 
bbrjan at the beginning of the year, en fern drs flicka a 
girl of five years, vid tvd drs alder at the age of two 
years, pa fern mils avstdnd at a distance of five miles, 
Kronobergs Ian the district of Kronoberg, Stockholms stad 
the city of Stockholm, Gotebo'rgs hbgskola the University 
of Gothenburg. In expressions like the last two, no gen- 
itive ending is added if the proper noun ends in a vowel 
or in certain consonants, especially -s; as, Orebro' Ian the 
district of Orebro, Mora socken the parish of Mora, Upsala 
universitet the University of Uppsala, Kalmar Ian the dis- 
trict of Kalmar, Vdsterd's stad the town of Vasteras. 
Falu gruva the mine of Falun, from Falun, is irregular. 

94. However, Swedish may also use a prepositional 
phrase instead of the genitive, especially when the word 
denoting possession or connection is the name of an in- 
animate object, but some other preposition than av of, 
is generally used. Ex.: forfa'ttaren till boken the author 
of the book, en god van till min far a good friend of 
my father's, taket pa huset the roof of the house, pdrmen 
pd boken the cover of the book, en man av ara a man 
of honor. This substitution is especially common in the 
case of common nouns ending in an s- or st-sound; as, 
taket pa ett hus the roof of a house. Cf. § 87. 



50 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 

J),"). In some expressions where English has the prep- 
ositional phrase, Swedish uses the simple base-form, 
especially after nouns of weight, measure, number and 
kind; as, ett glas kallt vatten a glass of cold water, tva 
koppar kaffe two enps of coffee, ett par vita skor a pair 
of white shoes, ett par bbcker a couple of books, en hop 
manniskor a lot of people. When the following noun 
has definite meaning a preposition {av of) must be used; 
as, tva koppar av detta kaffe two cups of this coffee, 
ett par av bbekerna a couple of the books. 

Observe also juni inanad the month of June; staolen 
Berlin the city of Berlin. 

96- Especially in the spoken language, but sometimes 
also in literature, the genitive is used in place of the base- 
form to signify some one's family, house or business, 
much as in English. Ex.: Jag kbpte smbret hos Meli'ns. 
I bought the butter at Melin's. Hon dr hos A?iderssons. 
She is at the Anderson home. Shalt dn ga till Berg- 
strbms? Are you going to Bergstrom's? Johanssons vo- 
ro icke ddr. The Johnsons w r eie not there. 

97- In old Swedish, that is, before the ) ear 1526, the 
preposition till to, was regularly followed by the genitive 
case, and not by the base form, as new. In a fairly 
large number of phrases this old use of the genitive still 
obtains, but now 7 only certain nouns can be used in 
the genitive with till. These phrases usually have a 
specialized meaning, and the preposition is in most cases 
not to be translated "to"; as, till lands by land, till sjbss 1 
by sea, ga till sjbss go to sea, ga till sa?igs go to bed, 
ligga till slings lie in bed, ga (sitla) till bords sit down 
(sit) at table, vara till Iia?ids be at hand, ga till motes 
go to meet, till fots on foot. 

Notice that only the indefinite singular is used in 

1 See 5; 95. 



rx Syntax of the noun 51 

these expressions, and that the reference is therefore 
never to a particular object. 

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

98- Swedish omits the indefinite article before a pred- 
icate noun denoting occupation, profession, condition 
or nationality. Ex.: Han dr larare (skomakare, e?igels- 
■man). He is a teacher (shoemaker, Englishman). Han 
ixr bror {van) till biblioteka' rien. He is a brother (friend) 
of the librarian. Hon dr dnka. She is a widow. But if 
the noun is further defined (e. g. by an adjective or a 
clause), the article is used. Ex.: Han dr en god larare. 
He is a good teacher. Han dr en vd?i som man kan lita 
pa. He is a friend that one can depend upon. The 
article is omitted also when som as, is used., Ex.: Som 
barn var han blyg. As a child he was bashful. . 
- 99- The indefinite article is also omitted in various 
other phases. Ex.: Jag fick brev (syar) fran Karl i dag. 
I received a letter (an answer) from Carl to-day. Falla 
offer for fall a victim to. 

THE DEFINITE FORM OF NOUNS. 

100. The definite form is generally used in the case of 
abstract nouns and nouns denoting material or a class in 
their entirety (generic use). Ex.: Livet dr kort. Life is 
short. Md?iniskan dr dodlig. Man is mortal. Guldet dr 
dyrbarare an jdrnet. Gold is more valuable than iron. 

101. In the case of nouns referring to parts of the 
body or to wearing apparel, Swedish may, when the con- 
text makes clear the meaning, use merely the definite 
form of a noun, where English has a possessive pronoun 
and a noun. Ex.: Vad har du ijickan? What have you 
in your pocket? han stod ddr med hatten i handen. He 
stood there with his .hat in his hand. So also with 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 

nouns denoting relationship, when the relatives are not 
those of the person speaking or of the person spoken to. 
Kx.: Han gav brodern en vacker bok. He gave his brother 
a beautiful book. Sven reste till Ame'rika. Fora! Idrarna 
sbrjde mycket y men sonen kom aldrig hem igen. Sven went 
to America. His parents grieved much, but their son 
never returned home. But observe: Mor dr icke hemma. 
Mother is not at home. Min bror dr sjnk. My brother 
is sick. Din bror dr en god Idrare. Your brother is a 
good teacher. 

102. The definite form is used in expressions with dis- 
tributive meaning; as, manga mil om dagen many miles 
a day, tva kronor i veckan two crowns a week, fern kro- 
ner metern five crowns a meter, en krona stycket one crown 
each (apiece) . 

103. Swedish, as English, sometimes uses the definite 
form of geographic names; as, Ostersjon the Baltic 
(literally, "the east sea"); Mdlaren, Hjalmaren, Vdnern, 
Vdttern, the names of the four large lakes in central 
Sweden; Dalarna, one of the 25 provinces of Sweden; 
Kolmarde7i, large forest on the boundary of the provin- 
ces Ostergotland and Sodermanland. Swedish regularly 
uses the definite article with names of streets; as, Drott- 
ninggatan " ; Queen Street". Notice also Turki'et Turkey. 

104. When used with a proper noun, titles are some- 
times put in the definite form; in the case of some titles, 
however, either definite or indefinite form may be used, 
while others are always left in the indefinite form (es- 
pecially those ending in -a/, -or, -or); as, prosten Lnnde'll 
Reverend Lundell, doce'nl 1 (or doce'nten 1 ) Sunde'n Lecturer 
Sunden, profe'ssor 1 Cederschibld Professor Cederschiold. 
Cf. § 13. 2. 

1 Words used as titles before a proper name are relatively unaccented, 
with very slight stress on the syllable indicated. 



IX SYNTAX OF THE NOUN 53 

105. Iti a variety of expressions Swedish employs def- 
inite form contrary to the English practice; as, i {till) 
skolan in (to) school, i {till) kyrkan in (to) church, han 
dr i staden he is in town, so?nmaren dr slut summer is 
over, om sommare?i in summer, klockan fern (at) five 
o'clock. 

In some instances Swedish has the indefinite form 
where English employs the definite article; as, ijunimd- 
nad in the month of June, dr 1912 (read nitto?i htindra 
tolv) (in) the year 191 2, tala sanning speak the truth. 

Note. — Another use of the definite form will be taken up in a 
later lesson. Cf. \ 13, 1. 

106- ORTHOGRAPHY: Observe the small initial letter in 
mni, engelsman; also in titles (see § 104). When titles 
are used in direct address they are written with a capital. 

107. PRONUNCIATION: mdnniska, stjdrna, doce'nt, Ceder- 
schibld, Kronoberg, Bergstrbm, Karl, kyrka, Ostergbtla?id, 
dnka, en, som, an, ige'n, Sven. Observe the shortened 
vowel in till sjbss as compared with the normal genitive 
{en) sjbs. 

108- ACCENT: The following words have acute accent: 
fdrfa'tiare, fbrd'ldrar, vacker, feber, liter, ddrfbr, varf'dr, 
engelsk, Kalmar, Vdrmland, Smdland, Ndrke, Sbrmland, 
Vdnern, Vdttern, London, Turki'et. 

109. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) In the spoken language 
opp is regularly used in place of upp. 

(2) The spoken language almost always uses a prepo- 
sitional phrase instead of the genitive to express posses- 
sion or connection in the case of inanimate objects. 

(3) The use of prepositions with the genitive belongs 
primarily to the spoken language (see § 96). 

(4) Vad is generally pronounced va, but in easy speech, 



54 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 

when used as interrogative, va. In easy speech vid is 
pronounced ve (unaccented). 

(5) Sbdcrm anland is pronounced Sbrmland. In easy 
speech Ostergbtland is pronounced Ostergyllcn, and Varni- 
land, Smdland, Sbrmland are pronounced without the 
final d. 

(6) On the pronunciation of Drottninggatan, see § JJJ. 

VOCABULARY. 

ben n. (5) leg, bone liter (5) /zV<?r (— z.76 pi?its) 

biskop (2) bishop kyrka (1) church 

dar there, where Ian n. (5) district 

darf or therefore .for that reason m el 1 an between 

en (11. ett) 1 tf?z<? ord tz. (5) word 

engelsk English; -a the English ^r n. (5) ^Wr, couple 

language; pa -a z>2 English pa #/", &?, #?z 

engelsman (5; plur. -man) rik rich; rik pa rich hi, 

Englishman abou?idi?ig in 

feber (2) fever som as 

ficka (1) pocket till /<?, 0/", £y 

fa {irregular; sing, -r; /#.?/ trappa (1) stair; en trappa 

fick,plur.fingo) get, receive upp <?# the second floor; iv& 
forfa'ttare (5) author -or upp <?w the third floor 2 

glas ?2. (5) glass upp 7<^ 

kopp (2) cup vad what? , what 

kosta (-ade) «>.?/ varfor w/^ 

krona (1) crown, crowii vid at, by, in 

(= ^7 cents) yrke #. (4) /?W<?, occupation 

EXERCISE IX. 

A. 1. Deras bror ar bibliotekarie. Ar han en god 
bibliotekarie ? 2. Han bor ett par engelska mil fran 



1 The forms are identical with those of the indefinite article, but the 
latter is unaccented, while the numeral en has more stress. 

2 On the first floor is "pa nedra botten" or "i bottenvaningen." 



IX SYNTAX OF THE NOUN 55 

London. 3. Malaren ar rik pa oar. Tycker ni icke att 
Malaren ar en stor sjo? Jo, och den ar aven mycket 
vacker. 4 Min van liar feber. 5. Svensson ar skoma- 
kare till yrket. 6. Hennes far far fern kronor om dagen 
dar han arbetar. 7. Broderna bodde vid Einnegatan fern 1 , 
tva trappor upp. 8. En liter jordgubbar kostar en krona. 
9. Varfor har du inte skorna pa fotterna? 10. Stock- 
holm ligger mellan Malaren och Ostersjon 2 . 11. Mannen 
kopte ett par tofflor av skomakaren. De kostade endast 
fe;n kronor paret. 12. Hustrun och barnen sutto till 
bords, da vi kommo. 13. Smoret kostade en krona kilot. 
14. Mora socken ar i Dalarna. 15. Johan lag till sangs 
tva dagar. 16. Forfattaren far en krona ordet. 17. Sverige 
ar rikt 3 pa sjoar. 18. Johan gav modern tva kronor om 
dagen. Darfor tyckte hon om sonen. 18. Vad ar ordets 
gen lis? 

B 1. The legs of the table are long. 2. The shoe- 
maker's wife bought two kilograms of butter at Palmer's. 
3. The boys are in school now. 4. Hjalmaren is the 
name of a large lake that lies between Vastmanland, 
Narke and Sodermanland. 5. Selma Lagerlof lives in 
Falun in Dalarna. Her home was in Varmland when 
she was a child. 6. I bought five meters of the red 
cloth. This cost two crowns a meter. 7. Esaias 4 Tegner, 
who is the author of "Frithiofs Saga", was bishop of 
Yaxjo, a little town in the district of Kronoberg in 
Smaland. 8. The strawberries cost two crowns a liter. 

9. The boys found a couple of good apples on the tree. 

10. Is the doctor an Englishman? 11. He has two 
crowns in his pocket. 12. Did you drink a cup of coffee 



1 Observe the order. 

2 The Baltic. 

3 Names of countries are neuter. — Ar rikt pa aboimds in. 
•i Esai'as. 



56 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN IX 

or a glass of water? 13. Stockholm is beautiful 3 . 

14. Was she pretty as a child? 15. We lived on the 
second floor. 



1 See foot-note 3, page 55. 



X FUTURE TENSE 57 

LESSON X. 

FUTURE TENSE. ORDER OF WORDS. 

110. The future tense of all verbs is made by the 
forms of skola shall, will, followed by the present in- 
finitive. The future is conjugated as follows: 

Sing. Jag, etc., skalltala {bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva, vara, hava) 

Plur. vi skola tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva, vara, hava) 

I skolen tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva, vara, hava) 

de skola tala (bygga, kbpa, bo, skriva, vara, hava) 

Note. — i. Observe the vowel-change in skall, skola. Cf. £ 113, 
note 2. Also the quantity of the vowel is changed. 

2. Notice that skall does not end in -r (see \ 20). The same 
is true of vill in § 112 and kan in £ 113. Corresponding to this, 
notice in English the absence of -s in the third person singular of 
"shall", "will" and "can", as compared with" (he) runs", "(he) 
calls". 

111. Future time may also be expressed by: 

(1) The present tense, when the context shows that 
the reference is to future time; as, Han kommer i kvdll. 
He is coming 1 this evening. Jag ar hemma i morgon 
klockanfem. I shall be at home to-morrow at five o'clock. 
In many verbs, namely those that denote transition from 
one condition or action to another, or which point to the 
attainment of a result 2 , the present may be used to ex- 



1 Observe that also English sometimes uses the present tense to ex- 
press future time. 

2 These are called resultive verbs. Ex.: I bought you a book. The 
boy hit the window with the ball and broke it. I lay down on the couch 
and soon fell asleep. He wounded his enemy. I have written a few letters. 
Flowers bloom in spring. Please remind me if I forget to light the lamp. 
The boy fell off the fence. On the contrary, verbs that denote an action as 
going on, and which does not point to its beginning or end; nor to the re- 
sult of the action, are called dtjrattve verbs. Ex.: I have a beautiful book. 
I admire his good qualities. He is sleeping. I have been writing a few let- 
ters. He was lying on the ground. It rained all day. Many verbs may be 
at one time resultive, at another, durative. Ex.: (Res.) I wrote a letter. 
(Dur.) I wrote all day. (Res.) He came yesterday. (Dur.) There he comes. 



FUTURE TENSE X 

press future time without such context. Ex.: Jag soni- 
nar nog. I'll fall asleep, no doubt. Blir han frisk} 
Will he get well? Det blir bra. That will be fine. Du 
Jailer. You'll fall. Far jag svar pa brefvetf Will I get 
a reply to the letter? 

(2) The present tense of komma followed by att to, 
and the present infinitive. Ex.: Han kommer att resa 
i morgon. He is going to leave 1 tomorrow. Det kommer 
att regna snarl. It's going to rain 1 soon. 

Note. — Pure futurity is more frequently expressed by the 
present or by komma att with the present infinitive than by skota, 
which very often implies decision, determination or command. 

112- There is in Swedish nothing corresponding to the 
English distinction between "shall" and "will" in the 
different persons of the future. The Swedish verb corre- 
sponding in form to Eng. will, is vilja, but this always 
means "want to" "wish" or "will" (when this implies 
volition), and is never used to express futurity. It is 
followed by the present infinitive without att to. Its 
forms are: 

PRESENT PAST 

Sing, jag, etc., vill ville 

Plur. vi vilja ville 

I viljen villen 

de vilja ville 
113. The forms of the verbs bli(va) become, be, and 
kunna can, be able, are: 



PRESENT 


PAST 


PRESENT 


PAST 


Sing, jag, etc., blir 


blev 


jag, etc., kan 


kunde 


Plur. vi bli(va) 


blevo 


vi kunna 


kunde 


I bliven 


bleven 


I kunnen 


kunden 


de bli{ya) 


blevo 


de kunna 


kunde 



1 Observe that English uses a similar expression with "go.' 



X ORDER OF WORDS 59 

Note. — i. Compare the present of dli(va) with that of ha(va) 
in \ 16. 

2. Observe that there is vowel-change in the present of kttnna, 
similar to that in the past tense of finna in # 73. 

ORDER OF WORDS. 

114. INVERSION. Normally, the subject precedes the 
verb in declarative sentences, just as in English. But 
in principal clauses 1 this order is inverted, the verb 
being placed before the subject, 

(1) if any word or words belonging to the predicate 

(as, adverbs, adverbial phrases, the object or a predicate 

adjective) precede the subject 2 . Ex.: Sedan skrev han 

ett brev. Afterwards he wrote a letter. / Stockholm kbpte 

jag ett bord. I bought a table in Stockholm. Glad var 

han inte. He was not glad. Pengar har han nog. You 
may be sure he has money. Brodern talar han inte till. 
He doesn't (i. e. will not) speak to his brother; 

(2) if a subordinate clause precedes the principal clause. 
Ex.: Om han icke ar sjuk, (sd) kommer han. If he is 
not ill, he will come. Ndr klockan var dtta, kom han 
hem igen. He came home again when it was eight 
o'clock. 

Note. — 1. When inversion has taken place, the negative fol- 
lows the subject. Ex.: Han kommer icke. He will not come. 
Om han ar sjtik, sd kommer han icke. If he is ill, he will not come. 

2. Da then, when, ddr there, where, dit thither, whither, are 
used both as relative conjunctions and as adverbs. When they are 
conjunctions, the normal order follows. When used as adverbs, 



1 That inversion also takes place in questions and in the imperative 
(when the subject is at times expressed) need not be dwelt on here. 

2 Observe that there is much more freedom in the order of words in 
Swedish than in English. In principal clauses, words belonging to the 
predicate ai-e very frequently placed first, and as a result, inversion is 
very common. Almost any word can be placed at the beginning of a 
principal clause, to indicate transition from what has gone before, or 
for emphasis. 



60 ORDER OF WORDS X 

they cause inversion. Ex.: J)d kom han. Then he came. Dd 
han kom, var jag icke hemma. When he came, I was not at home. 
3, When a subordinate clause precedes the principal clause, the 
latter is generally introduced by sd . then, especially after a con- 
ditional clause. This sd is in most cases left untranslated in render- 
ing into English. See examples in §§ 114, 2 and 115. 

115- In the condition of a conditional sentence, the 
conjunction om if, may be omitted. In this case inver- 
sion takes place. Ex.: Om han kommer, sd dr det bra. 
Kommer han 1 , sd dr det bra. If he comes, it will be well. 

In other cases inversion does not take place in subor- 
dinate clauses 2 . See the illustrations in § 114, 2. 

116. In Swedish it is quite regular to place words 
between att to, and the infinitive. Ex.: Det dr bra att 
icke vara sjuk. It is well not to be sick. 

117. The rule given in § 76 holds also for (1) a/drig 5 
never, and the other words that have negative force; 
(2) adverbs referring to indefinite time 3 ; as, ofta often, 
alltid, always, snart soon; (3) certain adverbs belorging 
to the whole clause; as, val no doubt, nog no doubt, 
surely. 

118- ORTHOGRAPHY: knnna, kan, knnde; zif/, vilja. 

119- PRONUNCIATION: regna, igen, om. Observe the 
change of consonant sound in gd, gick. 

120- ACCENT. The following words have acute accent: 
fbrsi'ktig, vader, Anders, Oskar, Linder. 

121. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) After clauses other than 



1 Observe that this conditional clause is in form the same as a question. 

2 Except sometimes in clauses introduced by att. Ex.: Han sade att ta tre 
dagar hade han icke fatt nagon mat. He said that he had not gotten any food 
for three days. Mamma kom ut och rofade att nu var det fdrdigt. Mother came 
out and said that it was ready now. 

3 Observe that English, contrary to the practice in Swedish, fre- 
quently places temporal adverbs before the verb. Ex.: He often came 
for a visit. Han kom o/ta ta. besok. He always told the truth. Han talade 
alltid sanning. He never wrote home. Han skrev aldrig hem. 



X ORDER OF WORDS 6 1 

conditional clauses (see § 114, note 3), sd is much more 
frequently used in the spoken language than in books. 

(2) Shall is in the spoken language ska (pron. ska or, 
when unaccented, ska ), which is then also used for 
the plur. ■ skola. 

(3) In books both the longer and shorter forms of 
bli(va) are used; in the spoken language, only the shorter 
forms. Cf. § 13, 5. 

(4) Of sedan afterwards, there is also a shorter form, 
sen. In books sedan is of more frequent occurrence, in 
the spoken language, sen. 

(5) Del is pronounced da. 

(6) In the spoken language kvalln is in many parts 
of Sweden used as the def. form of kvall. 

(7) In easy speech alltid, fbrsi'ktig and fdrsi'ktigt are 
pronounced allti, forsi'kti, fdrsi'ktit. 

VOCABULARY. 

alltid always i ga'r yesterday 

bliva (blev) become, be i mo'rgon to-morrow 

bra adj. and adv., well 1 , good, klocka (1) clock; klockan 

fine ett one 0" clock; -n tva two 

det it 2 d clock 

frisk well (=not sick) kunna (kunde) can, be able 

forsi'ktig careful kvall (2) evening; i kvall 

glad glad, happy this evening 

ga {irregular' 6 ; sing, -r; nog enough; no doubt, surely 

past sittg. gick,pl?tr.gingo) ofta often 

go om if, whether 

ige'n again regna (-ade) rain 



1 Also frequently used in the sense of "frisk"' {not sick). 

2 Used, e. g., in sentences such as: it is well det ar bra: it is raining 
det regnar. 

3 Cf. "fa" in the vocabularv of Lesson IX. 



62 ORDER OF WORDS X 

sedan, sen afterwards, after sa so, then 

skola shall vilja (ville) want fo, wish to; 

snart soon will 

somna ( ade) go to sleep vader ;/. (5) weather 

svar n. (5) answer, reply val ?io doubt, I suppose 

svara (-ade) answer, reply, atta eight 

Observe the following series: (i) adverb (2) adverb 
or relative conjunction (3) interrogative (used also in 
indirect questions). 

TIME WHEN , PLACE WHERE PLACE WHITHER 

(1) nu now bar here hit here (= hither). 

(2) da then, when dar there, where dit there (=thither) , 

where (=whither) 

(3) nar whe?i? Also var where f vart where? 
used as rel. conj . (=.w hither?) 

EXERCISE X. 

A. 1. Om sommaren aro dagarna langa. 2. Nu kom- 
mer gossen. 3. Har bor jag. Var bor du? 4. Om du. 
vill, sa kommer jag i morgon kvall klockan atta., 
5. Kommer froken binder att sjunga i kvall? 6. Da jag 
kom, sutto de och laste. 7. Om du skriver i morgon, 
sa blir det bra. 8. I morgon kvall klockan atta skola 
vi resa. 9. En god van till min bror reser till Amerika ; 
i morgon. 10. Nar jag. kom, lago gossarna och sovo ; 
under tradet. 11. Var han inte hemma ? Nej, men han 
kommer val snart. 12. Vi komma att resa i morgon 
klockan fern. 13. I gar var Sven dar. I dag kommer 
han hit. 14. Anders sade att jag far svar i dag. 15. I 
dag pa morgonen fick jag bref fran herr Lundgren. 
16. Nar han kommer till staden, far han fern kronor om * 
dagen. 17. Skall ni rida hem nu? 18. I dag pa mor- 
gonen var jag i kyrkan. Vart gick du sedan? Sedan' 
gick jag hem. 19. Du far snart svar. 20. Blir ni glada, 



X ORDER OF WORDS 63 

ora ni far dessa bocker ? Nej, bockerna vilja vi inte ha. 
21. I Stockholm ar det vackert. 22. Kommer han, sa. 
far du brev i dag. 23. Oskar ar sjuk, men han blir val 
frisk suart. 24. Om du vill, sa skall du fa ett par sto- 
lar. 25. Gossen sade att han aldrig ville ga dit igen. 
26. Far jag bockerna? 27. Du finner nog glaset. 28. Har 
du nog smor pa brodet? 

B. 1. Are you going to buy the horse? 2. I shall 
soon fall asleep. 3. If I get an answer from my brother 
to-day, I shall write a long letter this evening. 4. He 
will soon get well. Did the doctor say that he will soon 
get well? 5. Do you think it is going to rain? 6. Our 
friends came at eight o'clock. 7. The boys will no doubt 
find many nuts in the woods. 8. I am going to like 
this house. 9. Your mother gave my brother these nuts. 
10. If he is not careful, he will get sick. 11. If you 
give your sister your apple, I shall give you a crown. — 
Then I can buy many apples. 12. Then the shoemaker's 
wife went to Lundstrom's and bought a kilogram of 
butter. 13. The boy has two pairs of shoes. His 
father bought this pair (place first) yesterday. 14. Are you 
coming here this evening? 15. The doctor's sister is 
going to sing to-morrow evening. 16. When is the pro- 
fessor coming here again? 17. It is well that summer is 
here. 18. Why did the boys go home again? 19. We 
couldn't come 5 y esterday evening, but if the weather is 
fine ("vackert"), we shall come to-morrow evening. 
20. They wanted to fly, but they couldn't. 21. Birds 
can fly. 22. The children were always happy in school 
(place fi?'st) . 23. She said that her brother is not sick 
now, but that he will get sick if he is not careful. 



64 THE ADJECTIVE XI 



LESSON XI. 
THE ADJECTIVE. 

122. It has been seen (§§ 50, 53) that adjectives 
used with nouns (attributive adjectives) take the definite 
form (-a) when the noun has definite form. The de- 
finite forin of the adjective is also used when the noun 
has definite meaning without being definite in foim, 
namely, 

(1) after genitives and possessive pronouns; as, gossens 
(/tans, miri) stora bror the boy's (his, my) big brother; 

(2) after demonstrative pronouns 1 ; as, denna langa dag 
this long day; den liar 2 gamla stolen this old chair; 

(3) before proper names; as, den heliga Birgi'tta Saint 
(literally "the holy") Birgitta, gamla Stockholm old 
Stockholm; 

(4) in address; as, kara syster dear sister. 

Note. — Ege?i, when it means "own," never has definite form; as, 
min egen bror my own brother. However, when it means "pecul- 
iar, " "strange," it takes the definite form in the regular way; as, 
det dr eget, att han icke kommer it is strange that he doesn't come, 
ett eget sdtt a peculiar manner, haus egna scitt his peculiar man- 
ner. 

123. In all other cases the indefinite form is used 
with attributive adjectives. Predicate adjectives are 
always put in the indefinite form. 

124. We have seen (§§ 52, 53) that when an adjec- 
tive is used with a noun in the definite form, also the 

1 Most demonstratives are followed by a noun in the definite form, as 
is also denna in the spoken language. See g SZ an(1 § 13, 1. The def. form of 
the adjective is used also after relative and personal pronouns, but these 
cases are of infrequent occurrence; as, jag olyckliga m'dnniska I unhappy 
being; / vilken vadliga fdrd de ej deltogo in which perilous journey they 
did not take part. 

2 Concerning den h'dr, see \ 13, 1. 



XI THE ADJECTIVE 65 

prepositive article is used 1 . Contrary to this rule, how- 
ever, the prepositive article is in a large number of 
phrases omitted before the definite adjective followed 
by a noun in the definite form; as, svenska spraket the 
Swedish language, i norra delen in the northern part, 
Atla'ntiska ocea'nen the Atlantic Ocean, Fbre'nta statema 
The United States, Mindre Asien, Asia Minor, bestd'mda 
arti'keln the definite article, tredje gangen the third time, 
femte upplagan the fifth edition, i fria Inften in the open 
air, gula febeni the yellow fever, i sista minu'ten in the 
last minute. 

Note. — The words hel whole, halv half, and sjalv himself, herself, 
etc., are never preceded by the prepositive article when followed 
by a noun in the definite form; as, held dagen the whole day, 
halva manaden half the month, sjalva drottningen the queen 
herself. 

125. Swedish and English employ different methods 
of expression in using adjectives with the noun under- 
stood, English in most cases requiring "one" or "ones" 
after the adjective. Ex.: Vill du ha en stor bokf Nej, 

jag vill ha en liten. Do you want a large book? No, I 
want a small one. Vill du icke ha den storaf Do you 
not want the large one? 

The adjective in the definite form preceded by the 
prepositive article may be used as a noun. In this case 
it takes the regular genitive in -s. Ex.: den sjuka the 
sick woman, den sjnkas feber the fever of the sick woman. 

126. Notes on the inflection of adjectives: 

1 No prepositive article is used when a noun in the def. form is preceded 
by a demonstrative pronoun. See § 122, 2 and loot-note. — A numeral, when 
used with a noun in the def. form, must be preceded by the prepositive ar- 
ticle; as, jag kotte de tva borden i Goteborg I bought the two tables in Gothen- 
burg. 



66 THE ADJECTIVE XI 

i. Adjectives ending in unaccented -en substitute-/? 1 for -n\ as, 
litem small, n. Met; dppen open, n. bppet. 

2. Those ending in -d substitute for this (a) -/, if a consonant 
precedes or if the syllable is unaccented; as, blind blind, n. blint; 
hard hard, n. hart: mild mild, n. milt; godhjdrtad kindhearted, 
n. godhjiirtat ; aisle ad beloved, n. alskat; (b) -tt, if an accented 
vowel precedes; as, god good, n. gott; glad glad, n. glatt; rod 
red, n. rott. 

3. Those ending in -dd substitute -tt for this; as, hbgljudd vo- 
ciferous, n. hogljutt; bebo'dd inhabited, n. bebo'tt. 

4. Adjectives ending in -t preceded by a consonant do not add 
t, but remain unchanged; as, svart black, n. svart; stolt proud, 
n. stolt; intressa'nt interesting, n. intressa'nt; trott tired, 11. trott. 
When the adjective ends in a single t preceded by a vowel, an- 
other t is added; as, vit white, n. vitt; sot sweet, n. sbtt. How- 
ever, in a few adjectives of foreign origin no t is added; as, aku't 
acute, n. aku't; konkre't concrete, n. konkre't. 

5. Adjectives ending in an accented vowel double the t of the 
neuter ending; as, bid blue, n. bldtt; ny new, n. nytt; frifree, n.fritt. 

6. Adjectives ending in unaccented -al, -el, -en, -er drop the 
vowel of the suffix before adding the -a of the indefinite plural 
and of the definite form; as, gammal old, indef. plur. and def. 
gantla; ddel noble, ddla; dppen open, oppna; vacker beautiful, 
vackra. 

7. For the indef. plur. and the def. of bid blue and grd gray, 
either blda or bid, grda or grd may be used. 

8. Instead of the ending -a of the indefinite plural and of the 
definite form, -e is used: 

(a) for euphony, after -ad (in adjectives and past participles) 
and -ast (in superlatives); as det godhjdrtade barnet the kind- 
hearted child; de brunaste ogonen the brownest eyes; 

(b) when adjectives used as nouns refer to persons of the male 
sex; as, den sjuke the sick man, but den sjuka the sick woman; 
den gamle the old man, but den gamla the old woman; den gam- 
les hus the old man's house. So also in apposition; as, Karl den 



1 Cf. \ 3. In adjectives n is changed to t only after e and this only in 
unaccented syllables, not, for example, in ren clean, allm'dn common. In pro- 
nouns the change takes place also after accented vowels (denna, detta) and 
aftef unaccented vowels other than e: as, nagon any, n. nagot: annan 
other, n. annat. But the pronominal adjective sadan such, has n. sadant. 



XI THK ADJECTIVE 67 

store Charles the Great, Karl den stores 1 rike the empire of 
Charles the Great; Olov den helige Saint Olov (literally "Olof the 
Holy"). 

(c) in the written language, but not in the spoken language, 
it may ■ also be used with adjectives whenever the noun modified 
refers to a person of the male sex. This substitution is more com- 
mon in the def. sing, than in the def. plur., while in the indef. 
plur. it occurs only rarely in the more elevated literary style. Ex. : 
den gode kejsaren the good emperor, kdre van dear friend. 

127- The forms of the adjective Men small, little, are 

irregular: 

INDEFINITE DEFINITE 

Sing, litem, n. litet I ilia 

Plur. smd 

128. Some adjectives are indeclinable, especially those 
ending in -a, -e, -es\ as, bra good, well, akta genuine, 
ode desolate, frdmmande strange, foreign, utvartes exter- 
nal; also all present participles and all comparatives, 
which end in -e (see §§ 133, f., JJ). Some indeclinable 
adjectives can be used only in the predicate; as, de dro 
sldkt they are related. 

129. ORTHOGRAPHY: gamma I ', gam la. 

130. PRONUNCIATION: hard, hbgt, halvt, heligt, Birgi 7- 
ta, arti'kel, ege?i, hogljudd, kdr, ocea'n, intressa' nt, konkre't, 
Norge. Observe the change in the quantity of the vowel 
in: vit, vitt; ny, nytt; fri y fiitt. Observe the change of 
thevowel in quality as well as in quantity in: god, gott; 
glad, glatt; hog, hog I; rod, rbtt; sot, soil; bid, bid It. 

131- ACCENT: (1) All adjectives ending in unaccented 
-el and -er (as ddel, vacker) have acute accent in the in- 
def. sing., while those ending in unaccented -en (as 
bppen, liten) have the grave. All adjectives have grave 
accent in the indef . plur. and the definite form; as, ad- 
la , vackra , oppna . 

1 Observe the genitive; cf. \ 125. 



68 



THE ADJECTIVE 



XI 



(2) The following words have acute accent: adel, vacker, 
arti'kcl, vilken, Norge, Ibsen, Fbre'nta staterna, atla'ntisk, 
Ryssland. 

132. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Bear in mind that in the 
spoken language -e does not occur in the use mentioned 
in § 128, 8, (c). 

(2) In the spoken language litet (n. of liten) is pro- 
nounced lite. 

(3) In easy speech the final d is not pronounced in 
blind. This is true also of land, especially in compounds; 
as, Ryssland, Vixstergotland . — In easy speech, helig, heligt 
is pronounced heli, helit. 

VOCABULARY. 



aku't acnte 

bebo'dd inhabited 

blind blind 

egen own; peculiar, strange 

f ri free 

frammande (indecl.) 

strange, foreign 
for too 
gammal old 
godhjartad kindhearted 
gra gray 
halv half 
hel whole, entire 
helig holy 
hard hard 

hogljudd loud, vociferous 
intressa'nt interesting 
konkre't concrete 
kar dear 
land n. (5) land, country 



mild mild, gentle 

ny new 

o'bebodd 1 uninhabited 

slakt (indecl. pred. adj.) re- 
lated; — med related to 

stolt proud; — over proud of 

satt 71. (5) manner, way 

sot sweet 

trott tired; — pa tired of 

trottna (-ade) become tired 

— pa get tired of 

utvartes (indecl.) external 

ar n. (5) year 

adel noble 

akta (indecl.) genuine, pure, 
true 

alskad beloved 

ode (indecl.) desolate, deserted, 
uninhabited 



oppen open 

1 The prefix o- in Swedish corresponds to the English ««- or 



XI THE ADJECTIVE 69 

EXERCISE XI. 

A. 1. Ar kaffet for sott, eller ar det icke sott nog? 

2. Amerika ar ett fritt land. 3. Det ar my eke t intres- 
sant att resa i ett frammande land. 4. Ett blint barn 
gick pa gatan och sjong. 5. Sade du, att du inte tycker 
om bla ogon? 6. Selma Lagerlof reste till det heliga 
landet. Sedan skrev hon "Jerusalem 1 " . 7. Fadern tyckte 
aldrig att haus eget barn var for hogljutt. 8. En sko- 
makare, som arbetar hela dagen, ar trbtt, nar aftonen 
kommer. 9. Fonstren voro oppna hela kvallen. 10. Pro- 
fessorn ar forfattare till ett nytt arbete, som ar mycket 
intressant. 11. Landet lag ode. 12. Vattnet ar gott. 
13. Ett barn som ar trott sover bra. 14. Da sommaren 
kommer, trottna barnen pa bockerna. 15. Nar jag 
kom dit, var den gamle icke hemma. 16. Denna lilla 
flicka ar endast tva ar gammal. 17. Om du kommer, 
sa bli barnen mycket glada. 18. Karl och hans syster 
sutto vid bordet och laste halva dagen. 19. Detta trad 
ar icke manga meter hogt. 20. Da gossarna blevo stora, 
reste de till frammande land och kommo aldrig hem igen. 
21. Ett kart barn har manga namn, sager Ibsen. 22. 
Sitter fageln vid ditt oppna fonster? 23. Detta stora 
rike, som ligger mellan Norge 2 oeh Ryssland, 3 ar Sverige. 
24. Flickan ar trott pa systems lilla docka. 25. Var 
icke professorns nya bok intressant? Jo, men icke den 
gamla. 26. Lilla Stina blev glad, da hon fick den vackra 
hatten. 27. Om denna klocka icke ar bra nog, sa far 
du en ny. 

B. 1. The gray house is very old now. It was new 
when I was a boy. 2. His little girls are kindhearted. 

3. This hat is too large. 4. When they were small, they 



1 Jerusalem. 

2 Norway. 

3 Russia. 



7<D THE ADJECTIVE XI 

lived in Vastergolland, 5. John and Carl are not related, 
are they 1 ? No, John is not related to Carl. 6. The 
soldiers are proud of the noble king. 7. Do you not 
think that Swedish books are interesting? 8. Mr.Lund- 
gren is a true Swede. 9. The professor found the land 
uninhabited. 10. He always thought that his own work 
was not good enough. 11. I have a dear friend who is 
very sick. 12. The kindhearted little boy wanted to 
give the old woman a crown. 13. Have you your blue 
book in school? 14. This large city has many long. streets. 
15. Is your friend's new house high? 16. Do you think 
that it is going to rain the whole day? 17. The new 
teacher's old books were interesting. 18. He always has 
one window open. 19. Where did you find these pretty 
flowers? 20. Afterwards the island lay deserted. 21. 
The old man's house is small. 22. Little Carl has beau- 
tiful eyes. 23. Is it not strange that he thinks that his 
own name is not pretty? 24. I received an interesting 
letter this morning. 



XII 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 



71 



LESSON XII. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

133. The comparative is made by adding -are, and 
the superlative by adding -ast, to the uninflected form 
of the positive; as, rik rich, comp. rikare, superl. rikast. 

Note. — 1. Adjectives ending in unaccented -el, -en, -er drop 
the vowel of the suffix before adding -are or -ast; as, adel noble, 
ddlare, ddlast; oppen open, opp?iare, dppnast; vacker beautiful, 
vackrare, vackrast. 

2. Also a few indeclinable adjectives in unaccented -a take the 
regular endings of comparison. They drop -a before adding -are, 
-ast; as, noga particular, nogare, nogast; dkta genuine, aktare, 
dktast. Nara near, close, is irregular, having the forms, comp. 
narm(a)re, superl. ndrm(a)st or ndst. 

134. In the following adjectives the comparative is 
made by adding -re and the superlative by -st. All these 
modify the root-vowel of the positive if this is hard 
(see § B). 



grov coarse, thick 


gr'dvre 




gr'ovst 


hog high, tall 


hog re 




hbgst 


lag low 


Idgre 




lagst 


ld?ig long 


langre 




langst 


stor large, great 


stbrre 




stbrst 


trd?ig tight, narrow 


trdngre 




trdngst 


tung heavy 


tyngre 




ty?igst 


ung young 


yngre 




yngst 


Note. — When lag signifies "low" 1 


n a moral sense, it is com- 


pared regularly, lagare, lagast. 


Also 


grov and trdng sometimes 


have -are, -ast. 








135. Two adjectives add 


-rre, 


-rst, before which the 


long vowel of the 


positive is 


> shortened: 



1 Render "are they'' by "?/«/' 




COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 



XII 



fa, plur., few forre 

smd 1 , plur. of Utcn , sm a r re 

small 

136- A few adjectives employ a different root for the 
comparative and superlative: 
god good i 

bra good, well ) 
ddlig poor, bad 
elak bad, naughty ) 
ond angry, evil j 
gammal old cildre 

liten small mindre 

mycken much mer(a) 

manga, plur. many fiera{ e), fier 



battre 



mrre 



bast 
samst 

vdrst 

didst 
minst 
mest 
fiesta (-e) 



Note. — God, especially in the meaning "good tasting," and 
o?id, when it means "angry", may also be compared godare, go- 
dast, ondare, ondast. Also elak and, rarely, ddlig may take the 
forms in -are, -ast 

137- A few comparatives and superlatives, chiefly such 
as designate place, have no positive. They are derived 
from stems not used as adjectives. In these the com- 
parative ends in -re, and in almost all the superlative 
ends in -rst. In frdmre, yttre and ovre a hard vowel 
has been modified. The principal ones are: 

bakre rear, posterior bakerst 
bortre farther borterst 

framre fore, anterior frdmst 
forre (-a) former f'drst 
hire inner innerst 

nedre lower, nether 7iederst 
undre lower underst 

yttre outer ytterst 

ovre upper bverst 

minst (see following paragraph) as com- 



(bak hind, back) 
(bort away, off) 
( fram forward) 
{fore before) 
{in in) 
( ned down) 
{under under) 
(ut out) 
(ova?i above) 



1 Smd may also use mindre, 
parative and superlative. 



XII COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES '/3 

So also {sedan, sen), comp. se(d)nare 1 latter, later, 
saperl. se(d)nasP latest, or sist last, latest. 

138- The comparative is indeclinable (see § 128), hav- 
ing the same form for both genders and numbers, defi- 
nite and indefinite; as, en bdtti'e stol, ett bdttre /ius, bdttre 
sto/ar, de bdttre stolarna. When used as a noun after the 
prepositive article (cf. § 125), it takes -s in the geni- 
tive. Ex. : Den yngres arbete dr bast. The work of the 
younger is best. 

139- When used as a predicate adjective, the super- 
lative has its original form (-ast, -st) and is invariable, 
being the same in both genders and numbers. Ex. Den- 
na Momma (detta ba?"n) dr vackrast. This flower (this 
child) is prettiest. Dessa blommor dro vackrast. These 
flowers are prettiest. 

When used attributively, or alone after the prepositive 
article, superlatives in -ast add -e 2 , those in -st add -a' 2 
(or -e; see § 126, 8 b, c.) Ex.: Den vitaste blomman dr 
den vackraste. The whitest flower is the prettiest. Det 
sfbrsta huset dr icke alltid det bdsta. The largest house 
is not always the best. Ett sista for so' k a final trial, 
nasta mdnad next month. 

140. All adjectives, though less frequently those whose 
comparative ends in -re, may express the comparative 
and superlative idea by mer(a) more, mest most, followed 
by the positive. Some adjectives, 3 especially polysylla- 
bles ending in -ad, -e, -se, -es, -isk, and all participles, 
both present and past, never take the endings of compari- 



1 This word, which is opposite in meaning to forre, forst, should be care- 
fully distinguished from sen late, tardy, slow. comp. senare, superl. senast. 

2 See § 126, 8, a. These forms of the superlative are really the defi- 
nite form of the adjective, but observe the extended use of the definite 
form of the superlative as illustrated in the examples. 

3 All indeclinable adjectives, with the exception of those that end in -«. 
belong here. Also many that can be declined. 



74 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII 

sou, using only mer(a), mest; as godhjartad kindhearted, 
mer(a) godhjartad, mest godhjartad; partisk partial, 
mer(a) partisk, mest partisk; ode desolate, mer(a) ode, 
mest ode. 

141 The comparative and superlative are sometimes 
used absolutely, without any idea of real comparison, to 
denote a rather high degree and a very high degree, 
respectively. Also superlatives formed with mest can be 
so used, but rarely comparatives with mer(a). Superla- 
tives used absolutely may or may not be preceded by 
the prepositive definite article, but the following noun 
almost always has indefinite form. Ex.: en langre pro- 
mena'd a (rather) long walk; vied stbrsta nbje with the 
greatest pleasure; with weaker force, baste broder dear 
brother (friend). Det gjorde inte den minsta nytta. It 
didn't do the least good. 

142. ORTHOGRAPHY: in, hire, innerst 

143. PRONUNCIATION: ovan, fram, didst, h'dgst, grdvst, 
lagst, elak, partiskt. Observe the shortened vowel in 
stdrre, st'drst; fdrre, smiirre; also fdrre, yttre. In h'dgst 
there is change both in quantity and quality of the vowel. 

144. ACCENT: (i) All dissyllabic comparatives formed 
with -re (or -rre) have the acute accent, except fdrre. 
Also the superlatives in -erst have the acute. Almost all 
such comparatives and superlatives modify the root- 
vowel, if this is hard. 

(2) The following words have acute accent: fdrsd'ka, 
promene'ra, partisk, Danviark, Finland, Oland. 

145. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Ned down, is used in 
books, but ner primarily in the spoken language. 

(2) Taga, sing, tager, is used in books, ta, tar primari- 
ly in the spoken language. 

(' 3 ) In easy speech med, dalig , ddligt, ond are pro- 



XII 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 



75 



nounced mix, ddli, ddlit, onn, respectively. — Grovt is pro- 
nounced groft, without change of the quality of the vowel. 
— Concerning Fi?ila?id and Oland, cf. § 132, 2. 

VOCABULARY. 



bortre farther 

dalig poor, bad 

do {irregular; pres. sing. 

past dog) die 
elak bad, naughty 
eniot against, to, toward 
fa plur. few 



noje n. (4) pleasure 
ond angry, evil; — pa angry at 
partisk partial, prejtidiced 
promena'd (3) promenade , 

walk 
promene'ra (-ade) walk, 

promenade 



forso'k n. {5) atte?npt, trial stilla (i?idecl.) still, quiet 
forso'ka (-te) try, attempt ta(ga) (tog) take 



grov coarse, thick, large 

hur(u) how 

lag low 

med with 

mycken much 

noga {i?idecl. ) particular, 

accurate 
namligen namely 
nara (i?tdecl.) near, close 



trang tight, narrow 

tung heavy 

ung young 

ut out; ga ut och ga go out 

for a walk 
ute out, out of doors 
an than 
annu still, yet 
ovre upper 



EXERCISE XII. 

A. 1. Oland och Gottland aro Sveriges storsta oar. 
2. Ar du icke stolt over att 1 vara svensk? 3. Den lille 
gossen blev ond pa brodern. 4. Vara trad aro grovre an 
era. 5. Det ar battre att vara den forste an den siste. 
6. Stockholm ar den storsta av Sveriges stader. 7. Vat- 
tern har endast en storre 6, namligen Visingso 2 . 8. Nu 
ar han fbrsiktigare, Darfor ar han aven friskare. 9. 



1 When Swedish uses a preposition followed by att and the infinitive, 
English has a preposition with the gerund. 

2 Pronounced Visingso'. 



76 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII 

Sven gick med Olof till narmaste slad for alt 1 kopa en 
biittre hast. 10. Bade Sverige och Finland aro rikare pa 
sjoar an Danmark 2 och Norge 3 . n. Skomakaren bor i 
det bortersta huset. 12. Den sjuka ar samre i dag an 
hon var i gar. 13. Da Strindberg dog, var han Sveriges 
storste forfattare. 14. Karls aldsta syster och lians yngsta 
bror aro ute och ga. 15. Det roda hnset ar lagst. 16. 
De fiesta gossarna i skolan aro bade aldre och storre an 
Johan. 17. Skola vi icke ga ut och ga? 18. Den framste 
gossen ar storst. 19. Tog du icke en langre promenad i 
dag an i gar? 20. Han ar elak mot system, men annu 
varre mot den frammande gossen. 21. Sedan han kom 
hit ar han bade friskare och gladare. 22. De voro ute 
och promenerade hela kvallen. 23. Jag vill ha den 
oversta boken. 

B. 1. Your name is still longer than mine. 2. The 
highest trees are not always the thickest. 3. Glass is 
heavier than water. 4. In old cities the streets are often 
narrow. 5. The best butter is not too good. 6. The 
white doves are prettiest. 7. This chair is the heaviest 
that I have. 8. Do you think that your old house is 
more beautiful than my new one? 9. Sweden is larger 
than Norway, but Norway is more beautiful. 10. Now 
the days are longer than the nights, but soon the nights 
will be longest, n. These two apples are reddest. 12. 
How many names have you? Only two. Then I have 
more names than you. 13. His fever is worse to-day 
again. 14. These trees are smallest. 15. I shall come 
if the weather becomes better. 16. English has more 
neuters than Swedish. 17. They tried to become better, 
but they couldn't. 18. Do you wish to go out for a 



1 For att with the infinitive denotes purpose. 

2 Denmark. 

3 Norway. 



XII COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 77 

walk? 19. The black table is lower than the brown one. 
20. This author thinks that his own books are the most 
interesting. 21. Their oldest daughter is only five years 
old. 22. Why is the shoemaker more particular with 
your shoes than with mine? 23. The lake became more 
quiet in the evening. 24. I thought I was old then, 
but now I am still older. 



;S ADVERBS XIII 

LESSON XIII. 

ADVERBS. 

14(>. Of most descriptive adjectives the form in -t can 
be used adverbially; adel noble, ddeli nobly; vacker beau- 
tiful, vackert beautifully, sot sweet, soft sweetly; mycket 
much, very. 

14-7- Besides these adverbs there are a great many 
others, formed variously: 

i. Primitive adverbs and their compounds; as, nej no, 
nu now, heir here, bort away, off, /idri herein. Adverbs 
compounded with heir, deir, var are very numerous. 

Note. — i. Compound adverbs of the kind mentioned in § 147, 1 
have the stress on the last syllable when they stand at the end of 
a declarative sentence; as, hciri', dtiri'. Otherwise the first syllable 
is stressed. 

2. Pronominal adverbs compounded with a preposition are often 
used in place of a preposition followed by a pronoun. These com- 
pounds are, however, not used in referring to persons, and are 
used less freely in referring to a plural than to a singular noun. 
Ex.: Boken varom du talade dr intressa'nt. The book of which 
you spoke is interesting. Dxri har han rati. He is right in that. 

2. Adverbs formed with various suffixes; as, -a {hem- 
ma at home); -e {ute out, out of doors); -an {redan al- 
ready); om (stundom at times); -deles {alldeles entirely); 
-ledes {saledes thus); -ligen (namligen namely); -hinda 
(annorlunda differently); vis {lyckligtvis fortunately). 

Note. — Some adverbs ending in -«, -e and denoting place where, 
are formed from adverbs denoting place to which; as, hem home, 
hemma at home; bort away, off, forth, borta away; ut out, ute 
out, out of doors; in in, inne within, in the house; upp up, uppe 
up; ned, ner down, nere down; fram forth, to the destination 
framme there, at the destination. 

3. A number of adverbs, especially compounds, end 
in -s, which is really the genitive ending used adverb- 



XIII ADVERBS 79 

iall\\ These are not felt as genitives. Ex.: alls, in 
the expressions alls icke or icke alls not at all; dels 
partly; hundratals by hundreds; hur da'gs (at) what 
time (literally, "how of the day"); Hggdags time to go 
to bed; halvvdgs half-way. 

In adverbial expressions of time the preposition i is in 
a few cases followed by an adverbial genitive in the 
indefinite singular. These expressions refer to the latest 
previous time of the kind denoted by the noun. Only 
certain words can be used this way, not, for example, 
vecka week, manad month, ar year. Instead of -s, the 
endings -as, -se are used in some words. Ex.: i son dags 
( mandags, tisdags, onsdags, torsdags, fredags, Ibrdags) 
last Sunday (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, 
Frida>', Saturday); i somras (hbstas, vintras, varas) last 
summer (autumn, winter, spring); i morse this (past) 
morning. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

148. Almost all adverbs formed by adding -t to the 
uninflected form of the adjective may be compared. 
Their comparative and superlative are the same as the 
comparative and superlative (uninflected form) of the 
corresponding adjectives; as, ddelt nobly, ddlare more 
nobly, ddlast most nobly; vackert beautifully, vackrare, 
vackrast; sbtt sweetly, sbtare, sbtast; h'bgt high, loudly, 
hbgre, hbgst; langt far, langre 1 , langst; mycket much, very, 
mera, mest, gott well, da I Ire, das I. 

Most of the indeclinable adjectives ending in unac- 
cented -a, that have forms of comparison, are also used 
as adverbs. Their comparative and superlative are the 
same as those of the corresponding adjectives; as, noga 
accurately, nogare, nogast; ndra near, ndr?n(a)re, 
narm(a)st; sakta slowly, sakfare, saktast. 



battre i 


bast 


hellre 


heist 


vdrre 


vdrst 



So COMPARISON OF ADVERBS XIII 

149. Of other adverbs only a few can be compared: 
i. fort fast, quickly foriare fortast 

Hinge long, a long time langre 1 langst 

oft a often of tare oftast 

2. The following employ a different root 2 for the com- 
parative and superlative: 

bra? well j 
vdl well 3 
gdrna gladly 
ilia badly 

3. The superlative forms given in § 137 are in the 
uninflected form used also as adverbs. Of sedan, both 
the comparative' and superlative forms are used as ad- 
verbs. 5 The same is true of forsl, of which the adverbial 
comparative is forr, and not for re. 

150- EXPRESSIONS USED IN CONNECTION WITH THE 
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND 
ADVERBS. Allt followed by a repeated (or single) com- 
parative is equivalent to the doubled comparative of 
English, denoting an increasing degree; as, den blev allt 
mindre och mindre it became smaller and smaller; allt 
st'drre och storre larger and larger. 

The adverbial "the", used with comparatives, is ren- 
dered by desto or dess, the correlatives "the . . the", 
by ju (followed by the normal order) — dess, desto or ju 
(inverted order); as, ju forr dess hellre the sooner the 



1 Langre is the comparative of the adjective Itmg and of the adverbs 
langt far and Hinge long. 

2 Adverbs ending- in -t that employ a different root for the comparative 
and superlative are included under § 148. 

3 Bra is also used in the sense of "very", "rather"', "pretty". In this 
meaning it cannot be compared. 

4 Blittre is the comparative of the adjectives god. bra, and of the adverbs 
gott, bra, vili- 
fy Cf. the foot-note to p. 137. The adverb to sen late; tardy, slow, is 

sent, senare, senast. 



XIII COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 8 1 

better, dess bdttre so much the better. Observe also the 
phrase icke desto mindre nevertheless. 

Allra followed by the superlative is equivalent to the 
superlative with "of all", or "very" followed by the super- 
lative or the simple superlative, in English; as, den allra 
storsta boken the largest book of all, allra forst first of 
all, del allra bdsta the very best, den allra heligaste 
the most holy. Observe also the phrase de allra fleste 
most of t.hem. 

Equality is expressed by lika (likasd) — som (just) as 
— as, or, after a negative, sd — som so — as. Ex.: Johan 
ar lika gammal som Karl. John is as old as Carl. Han 
ar icke sd stor som Karl. He is not so large as Carl. 
Observe the phrase sd snart som mbjligt as soon as pos- 
sible. Som is omitted in a number of cases; as, sd fort 
du kan as soon as you can; sd mycket han vill as much 
as he wants to. 

A lower degree is expressed by mindre less, and minst 
least, with the positive, as in English. 

151. ORTHOGRAPHY: fram, framme; hem, hemma; in, 
inne, ddrinne. Observe the small initial letter in the 
names of the days of the week {sbndag, etc.). 

152. PRONUNCIATION: ovan, fort, lyckligtvis, hur da'gs, 
liggdags, halvvdgs, till db'ds, sondags, mdndags, etc. 

153. ACCENT: (i) Dissyllabic comparatives ending in 
-re, and superlatives in -erst take the acute accent in the 
ca^e of adverbs as well as in adjectives. See § 144, 1. 

(2) Adverbial compounds (see § 146, 1 and notes.) 
take the acute accent when accented on the first syllable. 

(3) The following words have acute accent: vinter, 
sdledes and the names of the days of the week {sbndag, 
sondags, etc.) — Desto may have either acute or grave 
accent. 



82 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS XIII 

K")4. COLLOQUIALISMS: I. In the spoken language 
oppc is used in place of uppe , as opp for upp. So ner is 
used for ned. but w/v has no alternative form. 

2. Most adverbial compounds (see § 147, 1 and notes) 
are avoided in the spoken language. Dart liar du ratt is 
in the spoken language expressed det har du rati i. 

3. Dcss, which is also very common in books, is gen- 
erally used in the spoken language in place of desto. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — In this and the following vocabularies, adverbs foimed 
from adjectives by adding -t will not be given, if the adjectives 
from which they are derived are already known. 

alldeles entirely hundratals by hundreds; hun- 

allra of all, very dreds of 

alls at all hur da'gs (at) what time 

allt more and more had in this 

annorlunda differently) host (2) autumn; i host this 

bort aivay, off autumn; i -as last auiumn 

borta away; da'r borta over ilia bad, badly 

there in in; in i into 

dels partly inne within, in the house; in- 
dess, desto the (adv.) ne i in; dar inne in their 

diiri in that within 

dod dead; (2) death; till dods ju the (adv.) 

to death, fatal liggdags bed-time 

fort fast, quickly lika, likasa (just) as 

fram forth, to the destination ; lyckligtvis fortunately 

— till up to lange long, a long time 

framme there, arrived, at the morse; i morse this {past) 

destination morning 

garna gladly, fain niojlig possible 

halvvags halfway mycket much 



XIII 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 



83 



ned, ner down 

nere down 

redan already 

ratt right; ha(va) ratt be 

right 
sakta (indecl.) slow; adv. 

slowly 
st undo tn at times 
sa so, thus 
saledes thus 

The days of the week are 
sbndag Sunday 
mandag Monday 
tisdag Tuesday 



sang (2) bed 

uppe up 

vecka (1) week 

varom about which {what) 

vinter (2) winter; i — this 

winter; i vintras last winter 
var (2) spring; i var this 

spring; i -as last spring 
val well 



torsdag Thursday 
fredag Friday 
lordag Saturday 



onsdag Wednesday 

EXERCISE XIII. 

A. 1. Borta bra, men hemma bast. 2. Faglarna 
sjongo vackert. 3. Sven och hans far gingo bort. Mo- 
dern och system voro hemma hela dagen. 4. Det blir 
snart host. 5. I sondags reste jag till Malino. Jag kom 
fram kloekan atta pa morgonen. Sa snart jag kom fram 
gick jag till min gamle van Nyblom. Lyckligtvis var 
han hemma, men han var annu ieke uppe. 6. Sjuk- 
domen ar ieke till dods 1 . 7. Darborta i det gula huset 
bodde vi i somras. Nej 2 , ar det uibjligt. 8. Vi voro 
ute och promenerade i onsdags kvall. 9. Den sjuke ar 
battre nu an han var i morse. 10. Ju mera gossen fick, 
dess mera ville han ha, 11. Om du talar saktare, sa 
blir det battre. Ja, jag skall forsoka tala sa sakta som 
mbjligt. 12. I dag rod, i morgon dod. 13. Hur dags 
var det, da du gick fran hem met? Kloekan var fern, 



2 Nej here means "really". This is a frequent use. 



84 COMPARISON OF ADVKRBS XIII 

tror jag. Och du var redan f ram me klockan alia? 14. 
Sigtuna iir en intressant liten stad som ligger vid Mala- 
ren halvvags mellan Stockholm och Uppsala. 15. Dar- 
inne sutto kvinnorna och drucko kafle. 16. Gamle 
Bjorklund dog i morse klockan fern. Han led lange av 
en svar sjukdom. Stundom blev den sjuke my eke t glad. 
Da ville han heist sitta uppe och beratta sagor for bar- 
nen. Saledes satt han uppe lange i gar kvall och talade 
med de sma. Till sist blev han trott. Det var da redan 
liggdags, och aven barnen gingo darfor till sangs. Men 
pa morgonen voro barnen anim icke uppe, da mamma 
kom in oeh sade att den gamle var dod. 

B. 1. We went to the woods last Tuesday {place first) , 
and picked flowers. 2. It was already five o'clock. 3. 
Tlje boys tried to walk faster, but they became more 
and more tired. 4. I didn't believe my friend when he 
said it, but he was right. 5. Mr. Johnson writes that 
conditions in Sweden are very different now to what they 
used to be 1 . 6. The weather was not at all beautiful 
last summer. It rained entirely too much. 7. The bird 
flew down from the tree. 8. When they came to their 
destination they were no doubt still more tired than we. 
9. My house is just as large as yours, but it is not so 
beautiful. 10. The sooner you believe that I am right, 
the better. 11. I will be glad to go 2 with your friends. 
Fortunately I am not at all tired yet. At what time 
are they coming? 12. Your sister sings better now than 
before. 13. The boys sat in the house all day because 
it rained. 14. I came as soon as possible. 15. Did you 
come to your destination yesterday morning? 16. Old 
Johnson was the very best friend of the children. 17. 
The chairman spoke louder and louder. 18. They walked 



1 Translate to what they used to be by "an forr". 
2 Translate / will he glad to go by "jag gar garna". 



XIII ADVERBvS 85 

farther to-day than yesterday, but it didn't take so long. 
19. When it rained, the boys went into the house. 20. 
The woman went up to the table and took the money. 
21. It is raining too much this spring. Last spring it 
didn't rain at all. 



VERBS XIV 



LESSON XIV. 
THE VERB. 

155. It has been seen (§§ 48, 49) that Swedish verbs 
are divided according to the formation of the past tense 
into (A) weak verbs, and (B) strong verbs. 

(A) WEAK VERBS. While weak verbs in forming the 
past tense all have in common the addition of an ending 
containing a dental 1 consonant followed by e, yet they 
fall naturally into three groups: (I) those that have 
the tense-characteristic -de preceded by a; 2 (II) those 
that have only the tense-characteristic -de, which after 
certain consonants becomes -te; (III) those that double the 
d of the tense-characteristic. Verbs whose past tense 
ends in 

-ade (fa/ade) belong to the First Weak Conjugation, 
-de or -te (byggde, kbpte),to the Second Weak Conjugation, 
-dde {trodde), to the Third Weak Conjugation. 

(B) STRONG VERBS. These are characterized by vowel- 
change in the formation of their past tense, no tense-sign 
being employed. This group will be spoken of as the 
Strong Conjugation. 

156. PAST PARTICIPLE AND SUPINE. Of weak verbs 
the common-gender form of the past participle can be 
found by dropping the final -e of the past tense, the 
neuter being formed by changing the -d {-dd) of the 
common-gender form to -t (-tt) . Those ending in -t are 



1 See \ ZZZ- 

2 This - a - belongs to the st^m, and so the tense-ending is in real- 
ity -de here, just as in the Second Weak Conj ligation. The ste-ns of the va- 
rious conjugations illustrated by the verbs mentioned on this page are: (I> 
tala: (.11) byge-- kof>: (HI) tro: (Strong) skriv. Observe that in the First and 
Third Weak Conjugations the stem is used as infinitive, while in the 
Second Weak Conjugation and in the Strong Conjugation, - a is added. 



XIV VERBS 87 

not changed in the neuter. Its forms, then, are: (I) 
-ad, n. -at (talad, n. talat); (II) -d or -/, n. -/ (byggd, 
n. byggt; kbpt, n. kbpt); (III) -dd, n. -//( trodd, n. /r<?#) 
The Strong Conjugation has in the past participle the 
ending -en, n. -et {skriven, n. skrivet). 

The neuter of the past participle is used after the 
present and past of lia(z'a) 1 have, to form the present 
perfect and the past perfect, respectively; as, Jag har talat 
I have spoken, jag hade talat I had spoken. Observe 
that also English employs the past participle in the 
formation of these tenses. In both languages it has in 
this case active, and not passive, 2 meaning. 

When so employed in Swedish, the neuter of the past 
participle is called the Supine. In the Strong Conjugation 
i is substituted for e in the neuter of the past participle, 
when used in this way. The forms of the supine are accord- 
ingly in weak verbs (I) -at, (II) -t, (III) -ft, and in the 
Strong Conjugation -It. 

157- OMISSION OF THE AUXILIARY. In dependent 
clauses the auxiliary is very often omitted in the present 
perfect and past perfect, the supine alone being used. 
The context shows whether the supine has present perfect 
or past perfect meaning. Ex.: Har ar en liten bok som 
jag skrivit i sommar. Here is a little book which I have 
written this summer. Jag trodde att han trottnat. I 
thought he had grown tired. 

158. SUMMARY. (A) Weak verbs: 

INF. PRES. PAST PAST PART. SUPINE 

I. tala talar talade talad, 11. talat talat 



1 As in English, this is used both as an auxiliary and as an independ- 
ent verb 

2 Both in Swedish and English, the past participle of intransitive verbs 
has active meaning also outside of its use in the perfect tenses. 



88 VERBS XIV 

INF. PRKS. PAST PAST PART. SUPINE 

II. a) bygga bygger byggde byggd, n. byggt byggt 

l>) kbpa kbper k'dptc kopt, u. kopt kopt 

III. fro tror trodde trodd, n. trott trott 

(B) Strong Conjugation: 

skriva skriver skrev skriven, n. skrivet skrivit 

FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION. 

159- The First Weak Conjugation contains about 
five-sixths of all Swedish verbs, though most of the 
verbs that are most commonly used belong to other con- 
jugations. To the First Weak Conjugation belong: 

(i) Almost all weak verbs which before the -a of the 
infinitive have a consonant preceded by a hard 1 vowel; 
as, kalla call, bruka use, fraga ask. 

(2) All verbs having a vowel before the -a of the 
infinitive; as, roa amuse, f'drny'a renew. 

(3) Almost all verbs derived from other words by 
means of a suffix containing a consonant; as, gulna 2 turn 
yellow, from gid yellow; vidga widen, from vid wide. 

Note. — Most verbs of foreign origin belong to this conjugation. 
These are, however, not by far so numerous as are the nouns of 
foreign origin. Observe especially the verbs ending in -e'ra; as, 
stude'ra study, telefone'ra telephone. 

100. Example of the active indicative of the First 
Weak Conjugation: kalla call. 

PRESENT PAST FUTURE 

jag , etc., kalla r kalla de ska 11 ka 11 a 

vi kalla kallade skola kalla 



2 From many adjectives intransitive verbs can be formed by means of 
the suffix -na. These signify the entering into the condition or state indi- 
cated by the adjective, and are called inchoative or inceptive verbs; as, 
trottna become tired, gulna turn yellow, liardna become hard. Cf. English 
verbs with the suffix -en, which, however, have either transitive or intran- 
sitive meaning; as, "harden", "soften", ' widen", "whiten", "gladden". 



XIV 



REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 



89 



PAST 
kalladen 

kallade 

PAST PERFECT 
hade kallat 
hade kallat 
haden kallat 
hade kallat 



FUTURE 

skolen kalla 

skola kalla 
FUTURE PERFECT 
skall ha{ya) kalla t 
skola ha{va) kallat 
skolen ha{ya) kallat 
skola ha{ya) kallat 



Present perfect, ha(va) kal- 



PRESENT 

/ kallen 

de kalla 
PRESENT PERFECT 
jag, etc., har kallat 
vi ha(va) kallat 
I ha(ve)n kallat 
de ha(va) kallat 

INFINITIVES: 1 Present, kalla. 
lat. 

SUPINE: kallat. 

Note. — The future perfect is formed by the auxiliary verb 
skola, followed by the present perfect infinitive. The future per- 
fect is rarely used, the present perfect being employed instead. 

PERSONAL AND REFLKXIVK PRONOUNS. 

161. .PERSONAL PRONOUNS. In Swedish, as in English, 
the personal pronouns have a special form when used in 
the objective case. 

NOM. OBJ. 
jag viig 
du dig 

ni er 

Note. — De?i, det, as the English 
for the objective case. 

162. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. The personal pronouns 
of the first and second persons, both singular and plural, 
may also be used reflexively, referring back to the sub- 
ject. In that case they are translated "myself", "your- 
self ' ' , "ourselves' ' , ' 'yourselves' ' . Ex. : Skadade du dig f 
Did you hurt yourself? 

For the third person, however, a special pronoun sig 



NOM. 


OBJ. 


NOM. 


OBJ. 


han 


honom 


vi 


OSS 


hon 


henne 


j ?ii 


eder, er 


den, 


det 


de 


dent 



'it", has no separate form 



1 These forms of the infinitive are given here because they are used in the 
formation of compound tenses. Infinitives will be treated more fully in a 
later lesson. 



go REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS XIV 

is employed to convey the reflexive idea. Of this there 
is necessarily no nominative form. It is used in refer- 
ring back to a subject of either gender, singular and 
plural, and is rendered in English by "himself", "her- 
self", "itself", "one's self", "themselves". It thus 
corresponds to "sich" in German and "se" in Latin. 
Ex.: Gossen (djuret, gossama) skadade sig. The boy (the 
animal, the boys) hurt himself (itself, themselves). 

Note. — In translating from English into Swedish, the reflexive 
"himself", etc., must be carefully distinguished from the intensive 
pronoun "himself", etc., which in Swedish is an entirely different 
word, sj'dlv, n. sjdlvt, 1 plur. sjalva. Ex.: Han gick sjiilv. He 
went himself. Han byggde huset at sig sjiilv. He built the house 
for himself. 

*163. REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: The possess- 
ive pronouns of the first and second persons may also be 
used reflexively, as in English. For the third person, how- 
ever, Swedish does not employ hans, he?ines, dess, deras, 
corresponding to the English "his", "her", "its", "their", 
but uses for all these 2 a special reflexive possessive pro- 
noun, denoting either one or more than one possessor, 
sin, n. sitt, plur., when denoting possession of more than 
one object, 3 si?ia. It thus corresponds in use to the 
Eatiu "suus", but not the German "sein", which is 
equivalent to the Eng. "his" and "its", it being used 
as these, both reflexively and non-reflexively. Ex.: Gos- 
sen skadade sin hand (sina hander) . The boy hurt his 
hand(s). De k'dpte sin hast i staden. They bought their 
horse in town. But observe: Gossen skadade hans hand 



1 Neuter also without -t, especially in certain phrases; as, ar> s/'g- sjiilv, 
for sz& sjiilv. 

2 Also for "one's", "hers", "theirs". 

3 Observe that the sing, sin, n. siti may denote either one or more than 
one possessor, but only one object possessed. The plural sina may denote 
either one or more than one possessor, but the possession of more than one 
object. 



XIV REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 91 

{hdiider). The boy hurt his (some one else's) hand(s). 
De kbpte deras hast. They bought their (some other 
people's) horse. Observe the difference in the manner 
of expression as well as in the meaning between: Johan 
har sin bok. John has his (his own) book. Johan har 
hans bok. John has his (some one else's) book. 

164- PRONUNCIATION: sin, dem, honom , telefone'ra, 
djur, sjdlv, tjugu (^^IJaud ^B"), Stjdrnhbk, berg, hbjd, 
dnka, fattigt, byggt, sjdlvt. Observe the long quantity 
of the vowel in: lekte (past of leka) , g?ilna, hard, hard- 
na. In vitt, n. of vid, the vowel is shortened. 

165. ACCENT. (1) In the greater part of Sweden 
verbs having the unaccented prefixes be-, for- take the 
acute accent throughout; as, berd' tta , fbrny' a . — Verbs end- 
ing in -e'ra have the acute accent. — For the accent of 
verbs in general, see § gj. 

(2) The following words take acute accent: heller y 
historia, historier, Fridolf, Henrik. Varifran has the acute 
when stressed on the first syllable ;framfbr, when stressed, 
on the first syllable, takes either grave or acute. 

166. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) The omission of the 
auxiliary in the present and past perfect belongs prima- 
rily to the literary language. 

(2) In the spoken language the future perfect indica- 
tive is not used. 

(3) About fifteen words of the First Weak Conjuga- 
tion, almost all of which have / or n before the -a of 
the infinitive, may in the spoken language take the end- 
ings -te, -t and -t of the Second Weak Conjugation (cf. 
kbpte, kbpt, kbpt) instead of ade, -ad and -at in the past 
lense, the past participle and the supine, respectively; 
as, talte, tall, talt instead of talade, talad, talat. When 
these verbs are compounded, the shorter form is still 



9* REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS XIV 

more common. All other forms of these verbs than those 
mentioned are regular. 

(4) In a large part of Sweden the past tense in -ade 
of the First Weak Conjugation drops -de in easy speech. 
Ex.: Ja tala te Johan i gar. {Jag talade till Johan i gar.) 
I spoke to John yesterday. Han svara inte. ( Han svarade 
icke.) He did not answer. 

(5) In the spoken language for is regularly used in 
place of the conjunction ty. 

(6) Instead of the objective forms of the personal pro- 
nouns in the singular, easy speech employs certain unac- 
cented (enclitic) pronouns: -en or -n for ho?wm and den 
(when this is used in the objective case), -' et or -7 for 
del, 'na for henne. The use of the forms -'« and -7 is 
similar to that of the corresponding forms of the post- 
positive definite article (see § 15). Ex.: Ja sag' en i 
gar kvdll. I saw him last night. Fick du't? Did you 
get it? Ja tror'na inte. I don't believe her. In some 
parts of Sweden these enclitic pronouns are used only in 
dialectic speech. 

(7) The use of a redundant personal pronoun is of 
fairly frequent occurrence in the spoken language. Ex.: 
Ty greve Henrik dr inte vacker, han. 

(8) In colloquial speech dem is pronounced dom; mig, 
dig and sig are pronounced as if .spelled maj\ daj, sdj. — 
In easy speech the objective form dent, pronounced dom, 
is in some parts of Sweden used in place of the nomina- 
tive de. Ex.: Dom a inte hemma nu. (De dro icke hem- 
ma nu.) They are not at home now. — In easy speech 
fattig, fattigt are pronounced fatti, fattit. — On the pro- 
nunciation of till, see § 331 . — In easy speech /iar, when 
used as auxiliary, is pronounced ha. 



XIV 



FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION 



93 



VOCABULARY. 

Note. — In this and the following vocabularies the conjugation 
of weak verbs will be indicated with Roman numerals: (I), (II), 
(III). Verbs belonging to the Strong Conjugation will be desig- 
nated by (STR.). 

The following verbs belonging to the First Weak Conjugation 
have appeared in previous vocabularies: arbeta, bera'tta, kosta, lova, 
promene'ra, regna, somna, svara, tala. 

roa (i) amuse 

se {irregular; pres. -r; past 

sag) see, look; se pa look at; 

se u't 3 look, appear 
sedan after, afterwards , ago; 



hill, 



berg n. (5) mountain 

rock 
bruka (i) use, be accustomed to 
back (2) brook 
dal (2) valley 
del 1 there 

djur n. (5) animal 
fattig poor 

f ram for 2 before, in front of 
fraga (1) question; (i) ask 
foray 'a (i) renew 
gulna (i) turn yellow 
gang (3) time; en gang once 
hav n. (5) sea, ocean 
hojd (3) height 
kalla (i) call, summon 
leka (il, -te) play 
mellan between, among, in 

the midst of 
morkbla dark blue 
plats (3) place 



for sedan 



ago 



sjalv self, himself, etc. 
skada (1) injury; (i) hurt 
strimma (1) streak, band, line 
stude'ra (i) study 
telefone'ra (i) telephone 
till adv., more, in addition 
timme (2) hour 



traffa (i) 
varifran 5 

which 
vid wide 
vidga (i) widen 
at for, to 
ang (2) meadon 
anka (1) widow 



meet 
from where, 



from 



1 On the use of this, see foot note 3, next page. 

2 Accented "fra'mfor" or "framfo'r". 

3 Predicate adjectives, and some other words 



are regularly placed be- 
ut he looks sick. When not stressed 
as, han ser ut genom fonstret //,• is 



tween these two words; as, han ser sjul 
on "ut"', this phrase means "look out" 
looking- out through the window. 

4 Adverbs and adverbial phrases denoting time are placed between "for* 
and "sedan"; as. for tvA ar sedan two years ago: for lange sedan long ago. 

5 Accented "va'rifran" or " varifra'n''. 



94 FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION XIV 

EXERCISE XIV. 

Note. — All new words occurring in exercises A and B will be 
found in the vocabulary to each lesson. For unfamiliar words 
found in exercises C and D the general vocabulary must be con- 
sulted. Words in square brackets [ ] are to be omitted in 
translation. 

A. i. Barnens mor ar anka. Hennes man dog i vint- 
ras. 2. Gossen har arbetat hela dagen. Darfor har hans 
far lovat att giva honom en ny hatt och ett par vackra 
skor. 3. Det har regnat lialva veckan. Jag tycker att 
det ar nog nu. 4. Karl gav sina tva vackraste bocker 
at system. 5. Det roade dig val att traffa honom en 
gang till? 6. Nar lilla Greta hade varit ute och lekt 
lange nog, gick modern ut och kallade pa henne. 7. 
Doktorn sag pa barnet. Han sade att det sag mycket 
sjukt ut. 8. Den fattiga ankans lilla flicka brukade 
sjunga mycket vackert. 9. Telefonerade du sjalv? 10. 
Nar Erik studerat tyska ett par ar, kunde han tala det 
mycket bra. 11. Roade ni er i skogen? 12. Faren och 
korna aro ute pa angen. 13. Violanta 1 och Fridolf 
tyckte allra bast om att leka vid backen. 14. Nar de 
roat sig i vattnet ett par timmar, gingo de hem. 15. 
Vill du inte ha en kopp kaffe till ? - 

B. There 3 was once a poor widow who lived in a 
little house high 4 up on a mountain with her two 
little children, Fridolf and Violanta. The house was 
situated in the midst of large trees, but before it [there] 
was an open place from which they could look far 5 away 
across forests, fields and meadows, heights and valleys. 



1 Viola'nta. 

2 En kopp kaffe till another cut of coffee. 

3 Observe: det ar there is, there are: det var there was, there -were. Compare 
the phrase, det firms there is, there are. These expressions with the verb in 
the singular may be followed by a noun in the singular or plural. 

4 Use the form in t- of the corresponding adjective. 

5 See gl48. 



XIV FIRvST WEAK CONJUGATION 95 

But farthest 1 away they saw a dark blue streak, and 
that 2 was the ocean. 

C. Allaredan finns det 3 manga historier 4 om greve 
Henriks dumhet, och han ar inte mer an nagra och 
tjugu 5 ar gauimal. Man kan 6 tala om hur han under- 
lioll Anna Stjarnhok pa ett sladparti for nagra ar sedan. 
"Da ar vacker, du Anna," sade han. — "Du pratar, Hen- 
rik." — "Du ar den vaekraste i hela r Varmland." — "Det 
ar jag visst inte." — "Den vaekraste pa sladpartiet ar du 
i alia fall."-- "Ack, Henrik, det ar jag inte heller." — 
"Ja, men nog ar du vackrast i denna sladen. Det kan 
du da 8 inte neka. Nej, det kunde hon inte. Ty greve 
Henrik ar inte vacker, han. Han ar lika ful som dum. 

D. i. They used to relate many stories about her. 
2. They thought that their own parish was the most 
beautiful in all Sweden. 3. I have promised to tell a 
story to the children. 4. When it had rained a whole 
week, I became tired of it. 5. The children had been 
amusing themselves at the river all day. 6. I saw both 
him and her yesterday. 7. He had built his house him- 
self. 8. He has promised me the book many times. Do 
you think that he is going to keep his promise? 9. The 
sea is dark blue. 10. It looks as if it is never going to 
rain again. 11. If he hasn't gone to sleep, I want to 
talk to him. 12. I asked my friend if he did not want 
to meet them once more. 13. If he has not answered, I 
shall write another 9 letter. 



1 See \ 14-8. 

2 Det. 

3 See note 3 on page 94. 

4 Histo'ria, def. histo'rien, plur. histo'rier, is an irregular noun of the 
Third Declension. 

5 Nagra oeh tjugu ar some twenty odd years. 

6 The use of "kan" here is idiomatic; translate, teotfe sometimes talk. 

7 Here, as frequently, t be translated " all ". 

8 When unaccented this word must be variously translated according 
to th- context. Here it means " surely ". 

9 Cf. foot-note 2 on the preceding page. 



96 SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION XV 

LESSON XV. 

SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS. 

1()7. SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION. With very few 
exceptions, all verbs belonging to this conjugation have 
a soft vowel in the stem. 1 The past tense is formed by 
adding -de to the stem (see p. 66, foot-note 2) and the 
past participle (common- gender form) by adding -d. 
But after voiceless 2 consonants, the d of these endings 
becomes voiceless by assimilation, 3 past tense -te, past part, 
-/. Compare in Eng.: call, called; fear, feared; but laugh 
(pron. laf), laughed (prou. laft); bake, baked (pron. 
bakt). Accordingly this conjugation is divided irUo two 
classes: 4 

a) Verbs whose stem ends in a voiced 2 consonant; 
these have -de, -d; as, bygga build, byggde, byggd; libra 
hear, horde, h'drd. 

b) Verbs whose stem ends in a voiceless 2 consonant; 
these have -te, -t; as, kbpa buy, kbpte, k'dpt; leka play, 
lekte, lekt; resa travel, reste, rest; v'dxa grow, vaxte, vaxt. 
So also a few 5 verbs with the stem ending in n; as, 
begy'nna begin. 

Note. — Verbs whose stern ends in d 6 or t preceded by a consonant 



1 Most verbs belonging to this conjugation are derived from other 
words. Of these the stem-vowel is regularly modified, unless already a soft 
vowel; as, v'dlja choose, elect, from veil choice, election; kr'dna crown, from 
krona crown. By no means all Swedish verbs with soft stem-vowel belong 
to the Second Weak Conjugation. Especially noteworthy as exceptions are 
the verbs of the Strong Conjugation with £ or y as stem-vowel (see \ 178). 

2 Concerning the meaning of this term, see \ S^Z . 

3 Concerning assimilation, see § ~ " m - 

4 Except for the past indicative and the past participle the inflectional 
forms are alike in both classes. 

5 There are, altogether, five of these verbs, the others being bryna whet, 
kr'dna crown, rona experience, and synas seem, appear, of which last the end- 
ing will be discussed in a later lesson. A few r verbs with stem ending in / 
sometimes have -te: as, tala, endure, talde or taltr. 

6 In every case preceded by n. 



XV SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION 97 

do not add another d or t; as, sanda send, sdnde, sand (n. sant); 
gifta marry, gifte, gift. But verbs with stem ending in d or t 
preceded by a vowel take the regular endings; as, leda lead, ledde, 
ledd (n. lett); mota meet, mdtte, molt. 

168- Examples of the indicative active of the Second 
Weak Conjugation are: bygga build, kbpa buy. 

PRESENT PAST PRESENT PAST 

jag, etc., bygger byggde kbper kbpte 

77 bygga byggde kbpa kbpte 

I by g gen byggde? i kbpen kbpten 

de bygga byggde kbpa kbpte 



FUTURE: ska// (sko/a, sko/en, sko/a) bygga, kbpa. 
PRESENT PERFECT: har (hava, haven, hava 1 ) byggt, kbpt. 
PAST PERFECT: hade {hade, haden, hade) byggt, kbpt. 
FUTURE PERFECT: ska// (sko/a, sko/en, sko/a) ha(va) 

byggt, kbpt. 
INFINITIVES: bygga, ha{ya) byggt; kbpa ha(va) kbpt. 

SUPINE: byggt, kbpt. 

Note. — Verbs whose stem ends in r take no ending in the 
singular of the present indicative; as, hora hear, pres. sing, hor, 
not horer; gora do, gbr; lara teach, learn, lar. So also three 
verbs whose stem ends in /: td/a endure, tolerate, tdl; mala 
grind, mat; gala crow, gal. The plural is regular, hora, gora, 
lara, tdla, mala, gala. 

169- IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND WEAK CON- 
JUGATION, (i) A few verbs add to the stem in the 
infinitive and in the pres. hid. ay, which does not reap- 
pear in the other tenses: 2 

INFINITIVE PRESENT PAST 3 SUPINE 

skilja separate skiljer, skilja skilde ski/t 

sfbdja support stbd(J)er, x sfbdja sfbdde stbtt 



1 Also the shorter forms may be used. 

2 However, some verbs withy in the pres. inf. retain this throughout; as 
skonja discern, past sk'dnjde; h'dlja cover, past holjde. Others may retain it or 
lose it; as, sviilja swallow, svaljde, sometimes svalde. 

3 The past participle of each verb can be found by dropping the final e of 
the past tense. 



oS SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION XV 

In most verbs of this kind a modified vowel of the 
infinitive and present indicative does not reappear in the 
oth^r tenses, the corresponding hard vowel being m:ed 
instead. The most important 1 of these are: 
gladja gladden glader? gladja gladde glatt 

smbrja grease, oil smorjer, smbrja smorde smart 

spbrya ask, hear spbrjer, spbrja sporde sport 

salja sell sdljcr, slilja salde salt 

valja choose valjer, vdlja valde valt 

vanja accustom vanjer, vanja vande vant 

(2) Also a few verbs without this j have in the infini- 
tive and present indicative a modified vowel which dees 
not reappear in the other tenses: 

gbra do, make gbr, gbra gjorde z gjort 

sdtta set, put sailer, sdtta satte satt 

Two verbs, in addition to changing the vowel, drop a 
consonant in forming the past tense; in the past parti- 
ciple and supine, however, the consonant reappears: 
lagga lay, pnt logger, lagga lade 4 lagt 

saga say sdger, saga sade* sagt 

One verb with i in the inf. and pres. ind. substitutes 
a for this in the other forms, also changing the con- 
sonant: 
bringa bring bringarf bringa bragte bragt 



1 Tdras dare, with past tense tordes. is omitted here because its ending has 
not yet been treated. 

2 Observe that glade?- omits they in the singular; some verbs, as, st'ddjer, 
are written with or without j. 

3 On the insertion of j in the past tense, past participle and supine, see 

4 Observe that in lagga, s'dga and hava the past part, can not be formed 
by dropping the <? of the past tense, their forms being lagd, sagd, havd. Some 
verbs do not have the past participle. 

5 Observe the pres. sing, bringar, following the First Weak Conjugation; 
also the other forn s may follow this; see below under (4). 



XV THIRD WEAK CONJUGATION 99 

(3) A few verbs are irregular only in the supine, some 
of these taking here the ending of the First Weak Con- 
jugation (at), others that of the Strong Conjugation 
(-//)/ as, 

leva live, exist lever ; leva. levde levat 

heta be called heter, heta hette hetat 

lasa read laser, lasa lasle last or lasit 1 

(4) A few verbs may also be conjugated according to 
the First Weak Conjugation or the Strong Conjugation. 
Of the former, bringa is an example; of the latter, gala, 
the forms of which will be made clear in the following 
lesson, (page 107, foot-note 1). 

(5) Most of the auxiliaries, 2 though more or less irreg- 
ular, have forms resembling those of the Second Weak 
Conjugation; as, 

kunna can, be able kan, kunna kunde kunnat % 

Jia^vaY have har, hava hade haft 

vilja want to, will vill, vilja ville b velal 3 

Also veta know, is very irregular: 

veta vet, 2 veta visste vetat 3 

THIRD WEAK CONJUGATION. 

170- The Third Weak Conjugation contains verbs 
whose stem ends in an accented 6 vowel. The infinitive 
is identical with the stem. These verbs, which are 

1 Of rare occurrence. 

2 Only the auxiliaries already familiar to the student in the past tense 
are given here. When the others occur, reference to this paragraph will he 
made. Veta, though not an auxiliary, is put here on account of the absence 
of the r in the present singular like that in kan. vill: cf. § 116, note 2. 

3 Supines according to the First Weak Conjugation as mentioned in (3) 
above. 

4 This verb can properly be considered as belonging to this conjugation 
only wh. n hade is pronounced with long vowel; see g 172, note 1. 

5 In ville the original dental has become / by assimilation. 

6 Accented final vowels are long. 



PAST 


PREvSENT 


PAST 


troddc 


syr 


sydde 


trodde 


sy 


sydde 


trodden 


syn 


sydden 


trodde 


sy 


sydde 



ioo THIRD WEAK CONJUGATION XV 

not numerous, are monosyllabic, unless compounded. 
Examples of the active indicative of this conjugation 
are: tro believe, sy sew. 
PRESENT 
jag, etc., tror 

vi tro 
I iron 

de tro 

FUTURE: skall {skola, skolen, skola) tro, sy. 

PRESENT PERFECT: har {hava, haven, hava) trott, sytt. 

PAST PERFECT: hade {hade, haden, hade) trott, sytt. 

FUTURE PERFECT: skall {skola, skolen skola) ha{va) t?'ott, 

sytt. 
INFINITIVES: tro, ha(va) trott; sy, ha{va) sytt. 
SUPINE: trott, sytt. 

Note. — i. When the a of hade is pronounced short, which is usu- 
ally the case, the verb ha(va), have, belongs formally to the Third 
rather than the Second Weak Conjugation, the single d being only 
an orthographic irregularity. This verb is irregular, however, in 
having hava beside ha; moreover, its supine and past participle 
follow the Second Weak Conjugation. 1 

2. Not all verbs whose infinitive ends in an accented vowel 
belong to the Third Weak Conjugation, the others being irregular 
verbs belonging to the Strong Conjugation; see next lesson. 

171- ORTHOGRAPHY. Observe that verbs whose stem 
ends in mm or nn drop one of the double consonants 
when followed by the endings -de, -d and -/; glbrnma, 
gl'omde, glbmd, glbmt; kdnna, kdjide, hand, kdnt; begynna, 
begynte, begynt. The words kunna and vilja have already 
been discussed. — Observe that while the supii es sagt, lagt 
and bragt are written with a voiced consonant, which is 



1 There are no other irregularities in the Third Weak Conjugation, except 
that tva wash, lave, may follow the Strong Conjugation in the past parti- 
ciple and supine, in this case also changing the stem, tvagen or tvadd, tvagit 

or tvatt. 



XV THIRD WEAK CONJUGATION IOI 

prohounced voiceless, haft, from hava, is both pronounced 
and written with a voiceless consonant. 

172- PRONUNCIATION: (i) gbra, gifta, begynna, kdlla, 
kdnna, skilja, gjorde (§§ £■)> SJ or ^ hjdlpa, saga, hastigt, 
sagt, lagt, bragte, bragt, trddgard. —Observe the changes 
in the pronunciation of g in saga, sagd, sagt. — In stbdja, 
stbdde, the quality as well as the quantity of b changes. 

(2) The addition of the endings de, d, ■/ to a con- 
sonant preceded by a long vowel does not cause this 
vowel to be shortened except when the resulting con- 
sonant combination is double d or t; as, leda, ledde, ledd, 
lett; gladja, gladde, gladd, glatt; stbdja, stbdde, sfbdd, stbtt; 
mbta, mbtte, mbtt; heta, hette. Exceptions are the irregular 
verbs hava, hade (sometimes hade), havd or havd, haft, and 
veta, visste. On the contrary, a few verbs have a long 
vowel in the past tense, past part, and supine, though 
that of the present is short: smbrja, smorde, smord, smort; 
spbrja, sporde, spord, sport; vdlja, valde, vald, valt; vdnja, 
vande, vand, va7it. So also in the past tense of lagga 
and saga, lade, sade, and in velat, the irregular supine 
of vilja. — In the Third Weak Conjugation the addition 
of endings containing double d or t causes the stem vowel 
to be shortened; as, sy, sydde, sydd, sytt; tro, trodde, trodd, 
trott. — In the word stbvel the vowel is usually short. 

173- ACCENT. The following words have acute accent: 
begynna, stbvel; usually also trddgard. 

174. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) In the spoken language 
gladja and stbdja are usually pronounced without the j, 
gldda, stbda. — Wherever possible, however, verbs with j 
in the present have it also in other forms; as, vdljde, 
vdljt; smbrjde, smbrjt. 

(2) Vilja is frequently pronounced villa, and velat as 
v ill at. 



IQ2 



W E A K C NJ U G ATIONS 



XV 



(3) Iii easy speech kbpte and kbpt are pronounced 
with short vowel. 

(4) In many parts of Sweden medan is pronounced 
mann in easy speech. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — Verbs belonging to the Second Weak Conjugation that 
have -de in the past tense will be designated by (Ha), those with 
-te by (lib). 

The following verbs belonging to the Second Weak Conjugation 
have occurred in previous vocabularies: (Ha) bygga, saga, ha(va), 
kunna, vilja; (lib) forsoka, kopa, leka, lasa, resa, tycka. vaxa. 
The following verbs of the Third Weak Conjugation have occurred 
previously: bo, tro. 



begy'nna (nb) begin 
bringa (11b or 1) bring 
bat (2) boat 
bara (STR., bar, plur. buro) 

carry, bear, wear 
gala (11a) crow 
gifta (11b) marry; gifta sig 1 

(med) be married {to) 

marry 
glad j a (na) please, give 



hjalpa (11b) help 
hora (11a) hear 
kail a (1) spi'ing 
kanna 2 (11a) know, feel 
led a (na) lead, guide 
leva 3 (na) live (= exist) 
lagga (na) lay, put; lagga 

sig * lie down , go to bed 
lara (11a) teach, learn;^ 

lara sig learn 



pleasure {to), cheer; gladja mala (11a) grind 

sig 1 (at) rejoice {at, in) medan while 

glomma (11a) forget mota 5 (11b) meet, encounter 

gora (ira) do, make ro (in) row 

liastigt rapidly, quickly sexton sixteen 

beta (nb) be called, be (one's) skilja (na) separate, disti?i- 

name o-uish 



1 The reflexive pronoun here and in the similar cases below varies accord- 
ing as the subject is first, second or third person; as, jag gifter inig, du gifter 
dig, han, hon gifter sig, de gifta sig. 

2 Distinguish between kanna and veta. 

3 Distinguish between leva and bo. 

4 Observe that ''learn" is either I'dra or lata sie. 

5 Distinguish between mota and trijjFa. 



XV 



WEAK CONJUGATIONS 



I03 



sniorja (jia) grease, oil tradgard (2) garden t orchard 

spitrna (STR-, spann, plur. tvatta (1) wash 

spunno) spin tala (11a) endure, tolerate, 

sporja (ua) ask, learn, hear bear 

stodja (ua) support, lean ull wool 

sy (in) sew vet a (ua, visste) know 

salja (ua) sell valja (ua) choose, elect 

sanda (na) send vanja (ua) accustom 
j-atta (11b) seat, set, put, 

place; satta sig sit down 



EXERCISE XV. 

A. 1. Den gamla salde ull och kopte sedan brod at 
sina sma barn. 2. Jag visste att de voro fattiga oeh 
forsokte darfor att hjalpa dem litet. 1 3. Nar han lart 
engelska, reste han till Tyskland for att lara sig tyskr. 
4. Jag vet icke om jag kan vanja mig vid dessa forhall- 
anden. 5. Den gamle lararen hor inte vad du sager. 
Kan du inte tala litet hogre? 6. Vad har ni gjort i 
gkolan i dag? 7. Nar barnen lagt sig, satte modern sig 
pa en stol och laste i en bok. 8. Jag har vetat det 
lange. 9, De sn:a ha lekt i tradgarden hela dagen. 9. 
Jag har sport att han gift sig nied en rik anka. 10. Det 
lilla barnet ledde den blinde nar han var ute i staden. 
11. Det glader mig att hora att du hade ratt. 12. Nar 
han rott baten ett par timmar, trottnade han oeh kunde 
inte ro langre. 13. Vad heter du ? — Jag heter Lina. 
14. Han hade val glomt att de valt honom till ordfbr- 
ande. 15. Gossen har redan tvattat sig om handerna. -2 
16. Berggren tal ieke att se sina ovanner. 17. Det gla- 
der mig att hora att du ar frisk igen. 

B. Up on the mountain where the house was situated 



1 A little. 

2 Washed his hands. 



1 94 Wl'Ai; CONJUGATIONS --X-V 

[there] was a spring, which rapidly grew into 1 a brook. 
At this brook the mother washed the wool which sjje had 
spun, while the children played in the . water i; -,or, made 
small boats which they put down into the broolv 

When the children became larger, they began to help 
their mother, with her work. Fridolf carried water from 
the spring and worked in the orchard. Violanta learned 
to sew and spin. During the winter she sat in the house 
and spun, but when spring came her mother sent her 
with the wool that she had spun to the, brook, to wash 
it. She was now sixteen years old and a tall and beau- 
tiful girl. 

C. Han hade varit- i Munkeryd pa besok hos lag- 
mannens for nagra ar sedan. Ridande hade hau kommit, 
burit hog hatt, gula. byxor och blanka stovlar och suttit 
styv och stolt i sadeln. . Vid ankomsten gick allt vaj. 
Men da han skulle rida bort igen, hande sig, a att en av 
de nedha n gande kvistarna i bjorkallen slog ay honom 4 
hatten. Han steg av, satte pa sig hatten och red ater 
fram under samma kvist. Ater blev hatten avslagen. 
Det upprepades 5 fyra ganger. Lagmannen gick till sist 
fram. till honom och sade: "Om bror skulle rida 6 pa 
sidan om kvisten nasta gang"? Femte gaugen kom han 
lyckligen .forbi kvisten. 

D. i. They were visiting friends in Stockholm. 2. 
I know who he is,- but I do not know him. 3. His 
brother died a few years ago. 4, One of the branches 
struck him in the eye and almost made him blind. 5. 
He put on his hat, and rode away once more. 6. Do 

1 Till. 

2 For the ending of the supine in strong verbs, see '",, 158. 

3 It flattened. 

> .4- ICihtkeU o/T Hi* hat. 
;" // '(is repeated* 
G Suttose you ride. 



XV AY EAK CONJUGATIONS i®5 

you want me to repeat 1 what I said yesterday? 7. When 
I met them the first time they were walkiug on this 
side of the street. 8. Did you go past an old house with 
a red roof? 9'. When the peasant had sold the cow, he 
bought five goats. 10. 'The good' w6man went into the 
poor man's cottage and put two crowns on his table, ii. 
What was your father's name? 12. They sat in the 
cottage spinning all winter. 13. The branches of the 
birches are very pretty in spring. 14. If you sit down 
on the chair over there, I shall tell you the story. 15. 
He said that he had put the book on your table. 16. 
He did as well as he could. 17. T do hot know whether 
he has lived a happy life. i&. Have you learnt your 
lesson yet? 19. It began to rain after you had gone to 
bed. 20. Do you think that you can accustom yourself 
to the conditions in this country? 21. He hasn't much 
to be happy over. 21. Have you forgotten what you did? 



1 Translate as if: "Do you wish that I shall repeat.., 



io6 



STRONG CONJUGATION 



XVI 



LESSON XVI. 

STRONG CONJUGATION. 1 
175. Learn 2 the principal parts of the following strong 
verbs arranged according to the vowel of the past sin- 
gular 

PAST SUPINE 3 

bar, plur. buro burit 

s/car, plur. skuro skurit 
stal, plur. stulo stulit 

gai\ plur. gdvo givit 

bad, plur. bado bedit 

var, plur. voro varit 



INFINITIVE 
bar a carry 
skara cut 
stjala steal 
giva give 
bedja ask, pray 
vara be 



( taga take 
K fara go, travel 
( draga draw, pull 

s/d strike 

svar{j)a sw r ear 
( komma come 
( sova sleep 

ligga lie 
dta eat 

lata let, sound 
grata weep 

falla fall 
hal/a hold 

1 Concerning the membership of the Strong Conjugation nothing further 
can be said than that, besides the individual verbs mentioned, it contains 
a number of verbs having /, u or y as root-vowel. See appendix, page JJ2I-. 

2 The student is already familiar with the past tense of nine of these 
verbs. The brackets embrace the verbs that form groups with identical 
vowel-change throughout. 

3 The form of the past participle will in almost all cases be clear from 
the supine. Further discussion of the past participle will be found in a later 
lesson. 

4 Concerning the plur. kommo, see \ SZ- 



for 

drog 

s/og 

svor, plur. svuro 

kom 4 

sov 

lag 
at 

lat 
grat 

foil 

mi 



tagit 
farit 
dragit 
s/agit 
svurit 
kommit 
sovit 

teg at 

citii 

latit 
grdtit 

fallit 
hallit 



XVI 



STRONG CONJUGATION 



107 



176- All other strong verbs 1 follow one of four sys- 
tems of vowel-change, arranged here according to the 
vowel of the present: 

(1) All strong verbs with i as root-vowel, except gtva 3 
have i — e — z, as in 

bliva become blev blivit 

(2) All strong verbs with i as root- vowel, except Ugga, 
have i — a, plur. u, — 21, as in 



finna find 

(3) All strong 
u — o — 21, as in 

bjuda offer 
sjunga sing 

(4) All strong 
y — b — u y as in 

flyga 



fann, plur. funno 
verbs with u as 



bjbd 
sjbng 

verbs 

flog 



with 



as 



funnit 
root-vowel 

bjudit 
sjungit 
root- vowel 

flugit 



have 



have 



Note. — Observe that in some of the systems mentioned in §§177, 
178, there are three different vowels, in most of the o.hers two, 
while komma and sova have one and the same vowel throughout. 2 
When there are three different vowels: (a) The vowel of the past 
plur. differs from that of the past sing., but is the same as that of 

1 Not taking into account a few verbs that may be either weak or strong 
(see \ 180, 4)', and which would belong under j} 177. Most such verbs are 
of relatively infrequent occurrence and many of them are in ordinary style 
used more in the weak than in the strong form. These will offer 110 difficult}- 
when met with, especially as most of them follow biira or taga, having as 
root-vowel d or a, Ex.: begra'va (Ha or Str.) bury; gala (Ha or Str.) crow; 
smulla (Ha or Str.) make a report, bang; sk'dlva (Ha or Str.) tremble; smdlta 
(lib or Str.) melt; /<^« (lib or Stp., past lo/n, luto, supine iujit) run. — Ob- 
serve also the irregular verb varda <vart, 7'ordo. past part, vorden) become, 
which, except in the elevated style, is used only in the past singular. — Final- 
ly, the irregular verbs (.see \ 8 .», 1) are not here taken into account. 

2 It will be well to bear in mind that all verbs that have a in the past 
sing, have in the plural a vowel different from that of the past sing., and no 
others, with the exception of sviirja. — Also that the only verbs with three 
vowels in the system are (a) all verbs with /. y or a (except dta) as root- 
vowel in the present, and (bi the verbs bedja, giva, sla. — Finally, that the 
vowel of the supine is the same as that of the pres. inf., except that (a) it 
has u in all verbs whose past plur. has «.• (b) verbs of the type of jlyga have 
flugit: Ugga has legat : sla has sla git, 



to8 STRONG CONJUGATION XVI 

the supine. This is the case with verbs of the type of finna and all 
verbs with a as root-vowel, except ata. All these have u in .the 
past plur., and all but svarja have a in the past sing, (b) The 
vowel of the past plur. differs from that of the past sing., but the 
vowel of the supine is the same as that of the present, in bedja 
and giva. (c) The vowel of the past plur. is the same as that of 
the past sing., but the vowel of the supine differs both from that 
of the past tense and of the present. This is the case with verbs 
of the type of flyga and in ligga (with weak supine) and sla. 

When there are two different vowels, the vowel of the past 
plur. is the same as that of the past sing., and that of the supine 
is the same as that of the present, except in the ca^e of vara. 

177- Examples of the active indicative of the Strong 
Conjugation: skriva write, finna find. 
PRESENT PAST 

jag, etc., skriver skrev 
vi skriva skrevo 

I skriven skreven 

de skriva skrevo 

FUTURE: ska// (sko/a, sko/en, sko/d) skriva, finna. 
PRESENT PERFECT: har (hava, haven, hava) skrivit , funnit . 
PAST PERFECT: hade {hade, haden, hade) skrivit, funnit. 
FUTURE PERFECT: ska// (sko/a, sko/en, sko/a) ha (va) skrivit, 

funnit. 
INFINITIVES: skfdva, ha(va) skrivit; finna, ha (va) funnit. 
SUPINE: skrivit, funnit. 

Note. — Verbs whose stem ends in r take no ending in the 
singular of the present indicative; these are bar a, far a, skara and 
svdra (for svarja). So also in the case of stjala. Cf. § 170, note. 

178. IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE STRONG CONJUGA- 
TION. (1) Six strong verbs, with infinitive endii g in 
an accented vowel, take in the present indicative the 
same endings as the verbs of the Third Weak Conjuga- 
tion. On account of their similarity to this conjugation 
in the present they also take -tt in the supine, but the 
past tense remains strong These are: 



PRESENT 


PAST 


finner 


fann 


finna 


funno 


finnen 


funnen 


finna 


funno 



PAST 


SUPINE 


stod 


stdtt 


dog 


dbtt 


log 


lett 


sag 


sett 


ftck y Jingo 1 


fdtt 



XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 109 

INFINITIVE PRESENT 

std stand star, std, stdn, std stod 

do die dor, do, don, do 

le smile Icr, le, len, le 

se see ser, se, sen, se 

fa get fdr,fd,fdn,fd 

gd go gdr,gd, gdn,gd gick, gingo 1 gdtt 

The verb sld is similar to these in the inf. and pies, 
ind., but has a strong supine, slagit. 

(2) Five of the verbs mentioned in §§ 177, 178 have 
also a shortened form 2 in the infinitive: bedja, be; giva, 
ge; bliva, bli; taga, ta; draga, dra. Ending in an accented 
vowel these too naturally take in the pres. ind. the same 
endings as the verbs of the Third Weak Conjugation. 
On account of their similarity in the present to the 
irregular verbs just mentioned and to the veibs of the 
Third Weak Conjugation, also these have formed supines 
in -tt, but except in the case of bett and gett these are 
considered dialectic. 

INFINITIVE PRESENT 
bedja {be) bedjer {ber) , etc . 

giva {ge) giver (ger) , etc. 

bli 1 'a { bli ) bliz 'er { blir ) , e t c . 

taga {ta) tager {tar) , etc. 

draga {dra) drager ( dra r ) , e t c . 

(3) In a few verbs the supine is irregular; as, nysit, 
from nysa sneeze; suttit or setat, from sitta; tigit or tegat, 
from tiga; legat, from ligga . — In a few cases verbs belong- 
ing to other conjugations have a strong supine; as, lasit, 
from lasa; tvagit or tvdtt, from tvd w r ash. 

(4) A number of verbs may follow a) either the Strong 
Conjugation or the First Weak Conjugation; as, simma 



PAST 


SUPINE 


bad, bddo 


bedit {bett) 


gav, gdvo 


givit {gett) 


blev 


blivit 


tog 


tagit 


drog 


dragit 



1 Observe the consonant change in the plural. 

2 See appendix, page ^^- 



no STRONG CONJUGATION XVI 

swim, past sam or simmade; tvinga compel, past tvang or 
tvingade; or b) either the Strong or the Second Weak 
Conjugation; as, nysa sneeze, past nbs or nyste; svalta 
starve, past svalt or svalte; vaxa grow, which frequently 
has a strong form in the past plur. and supine, vuxo, 
vuxit. For further illustrations, see page 107, foot-note 1. 
In a few cases a difference in meaning accompanies the 
difference in conjugation; as, shita, past slot closed, past 
si u fade stopped. 

179. ORTHOGRAPHY: komma, kom , kommo, kommit; 
sinnna, stun, summo, summit. 

180- PRONUNCIATION: korsbdr, skdra, skdlva, skynda , 
skbn, stjala, ihjdl, djup, Djulb, bbja, Europa, hid, kniv. 
Observe the changing consonant sound in giva, gav; 
skdra, skar; skdlva, skalv; stjala, stal; ga, gick. — In most 
strong verbs the quantity of the vowel is the same 
throughout the entire system, but there is change of 
quantity in ligga, lag; svdrja, svor; lopa, lopp; fa, jick; 
ga, gick; varda (vowel usually long), vart (vowel short). 

181- ACCENT. The following words have acute accent: 
fbrsvinna, begra' va , f'brky' la , beu'ndra, strdnder?ia; likewise 

tied for and framfbr, w T hich may also be stressed on the 
last syllable. The following may have either acute or 
grave accent: brdttom, numera, farbror, korsbdr (almost 
always acute). 

182. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) In the case of the verbs 
mentioned in § 180, 2 the shorter forms occur primarily 
in the spoken language, but be, ber, ge, ger and bli, blir 
are also frequently used in literature, except in the more 
elevated style The supine bett is used in all but the 
elevated style, while gett belongs to easy speech; the 
corresponding supines of bit, ta and dra are dialectic. 

(2) In the past tense of a number of verbs the final 
consonant when preceded by a long vowel, is omitted in 



XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 1 1 T 

easy speech: ga(v), va(r), dro(g), slo(g), ld(g), sd(g), 
sto(d). In others such a pronunciation is considered 
dialectic, e. g. in the past tense of bliva, bedja, taga. 

(3) In the greater part of Gotaland the supine in -it 
is pronounced exactly like the neuter of the past parti- 
ciple, -et; in the rest of Sweden it is usually pronounced 
as spelled, though in Stockholm and a number of other 
places it loses the final -/; as, vari for varit. 

(4) In the spoken language n&gonsin is usually short- 
ened to nansin. 

(5) In the case of verbs that may be either strong or 
weak the spoken language in most cases prefers the 
weak forms. 

(6) In verbs of the type of flyga, easy speech has 
frequently the same vowel in the supine as in the infin- 
itive, flyga, flog, fly git. 

(7) Tva is used only in elevated style, tvatta being the 
word otherwise employed. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — The following verbs belonging to the Strong Conjuga- 
tion have occurred in previous vocabularies: bjuda, bliva, bara, 
dricka, do, falla, finna, flyga, fa, giva, ga, halla, komma, lida, 
ligga, rida, se, sitta, sjunga, skriva, sova, taga, vara. 

all (11. allt, plur. alia) all brattom in a hurry; ha 

bakom 1 behind brattom be in a hurry, 

bedja (STR.) ask, request, be busy 

pray boja (na) bend; bbja sig' 2 

blommande blooming bend, stoop 

biasa (11b) blow draga (STR.) draw, pull 

brusa (1) roar, rush fall n. (5) fall, waterfall 



1 "Ba'kom" or "bako'm"; "ne'dfor" or "nedfo'r". 

2 Bend as translation for "l)oja" is transitive, while it is intransitive 
when it translates "boja sig-". 



112 STRONG CONJUGATION XVI 

fara (STR.) go, travel nagonsin ever 

flyta (STR.) float, flow simma (i or STR.) swim 

forsvi'nna (STR.) disappear skyuda (i) hurry, hasten; 

grata (STR.) weep skynda sig hurry 

hail from here, away skara (STR.) cut 

ihjal to death sluta (i or STR.) finish, end, 

kna n. (4) knee stop; shut, close 

kvar 1 left y behind , remaining si a (STR.) strike, hit 

korsbar n. (5) cherry stjala (STR.) steal 

korsbarsblomma (1) cherry- sta (STR.) stand; sta till 2 

blossom be, do 

korsbarstrad n. (5) cherry- sviilta (STR.) starve 

tree svar(j)a (STR.) swear 

le (STR.) smile tiga (STR.) be silent 

lata (STR.) let, sound; lata tvinga (i or STR.) compel 

bli leave of, let alone , cease tva (in) ivash 

mot against, towards vidare further, more, on 

nedfor down vind (2) wind 

nysa (STR.) sneeze ata (STR.) eat 

EXERCISE XVI. 

A. i. Manga av soldaterna svulto ihjal under vintern, 
2. Om du icke har brattom, sa skall jag be dig sitta kvar 
litet langre. 3. Nar det slutat regna, skola vi ga ut och 
ga. 4. Jag vet att han gjort det, men jag ar icke ond 
pa honom. 5. Da hon kommit ned till baeken, lade hon 
sig genast pa kna och tvattade nllen. Det sag ut som 
om hon hade mycket brattom. 7. Nar hon slutat, skyn- 
dade hon sig nedfor berget for att traffa brodern. 8. 
Sedan gingo de till en liten tradgard som deras moder 
hade kopt, och plockade korsbar. 9. Om varen hade de 
tyckt att korsbarsblommorna voro det vackraste de nagon- 



1 Used, as in: sitta kvar remain sitting, sta kvar remain standing, etc. 
2 Used, as in: hur star det till (med dig) how are you. how do you do. 



XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 113 

sin sett, och nu tyckte de att korsbaren voro de basta 
de nagonsin atit. 10. Vi bado honom lata bli att gora 
det. 11. Hur star det till henima ? 12. Gossarna sutto 
och tego. 13. Om det icke blaser for mycket i morgon, 
sa skola vi fara ut pa landet. 

B. When it had become spring, she went down to 
the brook one day with her wool. She lay down on her 
knees and bent down over the water which was rushing 
down toward the falls. It seemed as if all the waves 
were in a hurry to get * down the mountain and out 
towards the meadows and fields. 

Violanta lay still for a long time looking 2 at the water, 
and then 3 she asked the brook: ' 'Whither are you hur- 
rying away?" 4 Then the brook answered: "To the wild 
waves of the sea. To the wild waves of the sea;" and 
rushed on. 

Behind Violanta [there] stood a blooming cherry-tree. 
When the wind blew, many of the white blossoms fell 
down into the brook and floated away. 5 "Whither are 
you floating away. Whither are you floating away, you 
pretty, white flowers?" asked Violanta, when she saw 
the flowers floating 6 along with the water. "To the 
wild waves of the sea. To the wild waves of the sea," 
answered the cherry-bloFS-oms and disappeared. 

C. Da talade gumman om, att det en gang skulle ha 
legat ett slott norr om stora Djulo pa en backe, dar det 
numera inte fanns annat an 7 skog, och framfor det slot- 
tet skulle ha legat en skon lustgard. Sa hade det en 
gang hant, att en, som kallades herr Karl, och som pa 
den tiden styrde hela Sormland, hade kommit resande 8 



1 Komma. 5 Bort. 

2 Do not render with a participle. 6 Translate with infinitive. 

3 Sa. 7 Inte annat an nothing but. 

4 Han. 8 Present participle of "resa" 



114 STRONG CONJUGATION XVt 

till slottet. Och sedan han hade spisat och druekit, 
hade han gatt lit i lustgarden, statt dar bade lan-ge oeh 
val oeh sett tit over Stora Djnlo sjo och de vackra 
stianderna. Men bast han stod dar och gladde sig at 
det, som han sag, och tankte for sig sjalv, att det inte 
fanns vackrare land an Sormland, sa hade han hort 
nagon sucka helt djnpt alldeles bakom honom. 

D. i. The book has been lying on the table all the 
time. 2. Have you ever seen the royal palace in Stock- 
holm ? 3. If you have been in Stockholm, you have 
seen the most beautiful capital of Europe. 1 4. What 
has happened over there? 5. At that time there was 
nothing but woods here. 6. The naughty boys stole 
cherries in the old man's orchard. 7. He bent the branch 
until it broke. 8. I have apparently caught a cold. I 
have been sneezing all day. 9. How are you to-day, 
uncle? 10. He smiled when I told him that I had wept. 
11. I asked him to hurry. 12. We took our knives and 
cut off all the small branches. 13. Formerly the water 
flowed much more slowly than now. 14. They disap- 
peared among the trees. 15. When he had been stand- 
ing a long time admiring the shores of this lake, he 
said that he had never seen anj^thing more beautiful. 
16. I sighed when I heard that he had died so young. 



1 Euro'pa. 



XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 1 15 



LESSON XVII. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

183. The subjunctive ends in -e in all persons, both 
singular and plural, except that the second person plural 
ends in -en} In all conjugations the present and past 
subjunctive can be found by substituting -e for the plural 
ending of the corresponding tense of the indicative. 2 

The auxiliaries ma, matte* may, and skulle^ should, 
would, with the infinitive may be substituted for the 
subjunctive in most of its uses. 

Note. — 1. Verbs whose infinitive ends in an accented vowel do 
not form the present subjunctive, using only the auxiliaries. 

2. Weak verbs have no special form for the past subjunctive, 
but employ the past indicative. 

3. Strong verbs which in the plural of the past indicative have 
a vowel differing from that of the past singular, employ the plural 
vowel both in the singular and plural of the subjunctive. 

184. The forms of the present subjunctive are: 



I. 




II. 


III. 


STRONG 


IRREG. STR. 


jag, etc., 


alske 


leve 





blive 


give 


3 


vi alske 




I eve 




blive 


give 





I ah ken 




I even 





bliven 


given 





de alske 




leve 




blive 


give 





In place of the present subjunctive the auxiliaries ma 
and matte with the present infinitive may be used: 
jag, etc., ma (or matte) alska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 



I As has been seen, -en (or -n > is the ending for the second person plural 
in all moods and tenses. 

2 Except in the case of vara, pres. ind. plural dro. but subj. vare. The past 
tense is regular, subj. vore. 

3 Ma is conjugated like the other verbs with accented final vowel, except 
that it does not add -r in the sing.; el. \ ^5- In form matte is its past 
tense (cf. \ ^^ ), but it is never used to express past time. 

•i In form skulle is the past tense of skall: cf. \ ES- 



Il6 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 

vi ma (m&tte) a/ska, leva, fro, bliva, giva, std 
I man (m&tten) dlska leva, fro, bliva, giva, std 
de m& (m&tte) dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 

18,"). The forms of the past subjunctive art: 
I. II. III. STRONG IRREG. STR. 

blcvc gave stodc 

~ , .... bleve pave stode 

Same as the past indicative. .. 

bl even gdve?i s tod en 

bleve gave stode 

In place of the past subjunctive the auxiliary skulle 

with the present infinitive may be used: 

tag, etc., skulle dlska, leva, t? r o, bliva, giva, std 

vi skulle dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, std 

I skullen dlska, leva, fro, bliva giva, std 

de skulle dlska, leva, fro bliva, giva. std 

186. There is no present perfect subjunctive, the 

auxiliaries md, matte with the perfect infinitive being 

used instead; as, jag md (or matte) ha(ya) dlskat, etc. 

187- For the past perfect subjunctive the foims of 

the past perfect indicathe are used; in place of this the 

auxiliary skulle followed by the perfect infinitive is very 

often employed; as, jag hade dlskat or jag skulle ka(va) 

dlskat, etc. 

USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

188 The use of the subjunctive is rather limited, 
auxiliaries 1 being employed in man}- cases where German 
and Latin would have the subjunctive. Even in most 
constructions wheie Swedish does employ the subjunctive, 
the auxiliaries followed by the infinitive aie used inter- 
changeably with this In the present terse the auxiliary 



1 Also other auxiliaries than md, matte and skulle are used to express ideas 
that in German and Latin require the subjunctive. — The auxiliaries ma. 
matte, skulle are used extensively also in constructions where Swedish could 
not have the subjunctive. See Lesson XXI. 



XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 117 

is more common than the subjunctive; in the past tense 
it occurs frequently in the case of some constructions, 
while others require the subjunctive and do not allow 
the substitution. 

The present and past subjunctive do not denote differ- 
ent kinds of time as do the corresponding tenses of the 
indicative. In the subjunctive both these tenses refer 
to present or future time. In general, the present sub- 
junctive is used of an action that may take place, the 
past subjunctive of one that cannot or is not likely to 
take place. The past perfect subjunctive refers to past 
time, and is used of an act that did not take place. 

189. WISH. (1) A wish that can be realized is ex- 
pressed by the present subjunctive, or by the auxiliaries 
ma, matte with the present infinitive, matte imparting 
more vividness to the wish and implying fear that it 
may not be realized. As there is no present perfect 
subjunctive, a wish that may have been realized is ex- 
pressed by these auxiliaries with the perfect infinitive. 
Ex.: La?ige leve komingen. Long live the king. Ma 
det ga honom vdl. May he prosper. Matte det bli battre 
snort. I hope things will get better soon. Matte ingen 
olycka ha hant honom. I hope no misfortune has befallen 
him. 

Sometimes the past subjunctive is used to express a 
very vivid wish, which though possible, is less probable 
of realization. Ex.: O, att det ginge dem veil. I do hope 
they will prosper. 

(2) A wish that cannot be realized, or is not likely 
to be realized, is expressed by the past subjunctive when 
the reference is to pre ent time, and \>y the past perfect 
subjunctive when the reference is to past time. One of 
the expressions att, ack om would that, is very often 
used to introduce such wishes. Ex.: Ack, omjag vore ung 



nS THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 

igen. O that I were young again. Om han anda ginge 

mart. I do wish he would go soon. O, alt jag aldrig 
sett konom. O that I had never seen him. Ack, om jag 
bara hade vetat det. If I had only known it. 

190. UNREAL CONDITIONS. In unreal conditional sen- 
tences (conditions contrary to fact) the verb both of the 
subordinate clause (the condition) and of the principal 
clause (the conclusion) is put in the past subjunctive 
if the reference is to present time, and in the past per- 
fect subjunctive if the reference is to past time. In the 
principal clause the auxiliary skulle with the infinitive 
is very often used in place of the subjunctive. 1 Ex.: Om 
du gave mig boken, sal bleve jag glad. If you gave me 
the book, I should be glad. Vore jag icke tr'dtt, sa ginge 
jag pa tea' tern. If I were not tired, 1 should go to the 
theater. Om jag hade pengar, sa skulle jag resa. I should 
go if I had the money. Jag skulle ha k'dpt huset, om det 
icke varit sa gammalt. I should have bought the house, 
if it had not been so old. The condition may be expressed 
by an adverbial phrase, or it may be omitted. Ex.: Med 
din hjdlp vore det mojligt. With your assistance it would 
be possible. I sa fall fore jag strax. In that case I should 
leave at once. Ett dussin av dessa skulle kosta mig fern 
kronor. A dozen of these would cost me five crowns. 

Closely related to these are hypothetical comparisons 
introduced by som (om) , sasom (om), lik(a)som (om) as 
if, just as if, which also take the past or past perfect 
subjunctive. Ex.: Du kommer som om du vore kallad. 
You are coming as though called. Han bar sig at som 
om han hade varit galen. He acted as if he had been 
crazy. 



1 Observe that English regularly employs ''should" and "would" in the 
principal clause 



XVII THK SUBJUNCTIVE 1 19 

191. MINOR USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The sub- 
junctive is not of frequent occurrence except in the con- 
structions mentioned. Of the minor uses of the sub- 
junctive the most important is that in clauses expressing 
concession, in which case either the present subjunctive 
or via (not matte) with the present infinitive may be used. 
In referring to past time ma with the perfect infinitive 
is employed. Ex.: Det koste vad det vill. I don't care 
how much it costs. Komma vad som komma vill. Come 
what will. Det ma sd vara. It may very well be. Du 
ma gbra som du vill. You may do as you please. The 
expression vare sig. . . eller whether (either). . . or, 
originated in this way. Ex.: Jag gar vare sig ni gar 
eller icke. I shall go whether you go or not. Ingen liar 
kanner vare sig honom eller hans bror. Nobody here 
knows either him or his brother. 

192- SUMMARY: 
SUBJUNCTIVE AUXILIARY 

^ , 1 j Concession md 

Present 1 < 

Realizable wish ma, matte 



Past or 
past perf. 



Unrealizable wish 

Unreal condition, a) princ. cl. skulle 

b) subord. cl. 

s Hypothetical comparison 



193- ORTHOGRAPHY: ensam, ensamma; anuaii, andra. 

194- PRONUNCIATION: vdrld, dagakarl, djup, nojd, 
skogsbacke. — Observe the long quantity of the vowel in 
mogua, segla, udgra. In matte the vowel is shortened. 

195. ACCENT. The following words have acute accent: 
tea'ter, funde'ra, tillsa ' minans. — Ocksa has the acute or 
grave. — Liksom may have acute accent, in that case 
with shortened vowel. 

1 vSee I 1SS. 



120 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 

196. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken language 
the use of the subjunctive is limited, while in easy speech 
it is rarely used. In place of the subjunctive the auxi- 
liaries or the indicative are employed. Ex.: Om jag fick, 
sd for jag vied samma. If I could, I should go this 
minute. Om jag var kung, sd skulle du bli drotining. If 
I were king, you should be queen. Ack, om jag jick gd 
ut. I do wish I could go out. 

(2) In place of the n. intet the spoken language em- 
ploys the form inget. 

(3) The words varje, sdsom, vare sig belong primarily 
to the literary language. 

(4) For ndgon and annan easy speech uses the short- 
ened forms nan and ann. 

(5) Concerning bara, see § 



VOCABULARY. 

ack 0/1, of alas mogen ripe 

annan {n. annat, plur. and mogna (1) ripe7i, grow ripe 

def. andra) other nagon {n. nagot, plur, nag- 

bara only, just ra) some, any; some one, 

bar n. (5) berry any one 

borja (1) begin o oh, o 

ensam alone ocksa also, too 

funde'ra (1) think, po?ider; olycka (1) misfortune 

— pa meditate about resa (11b) raise; resa sig rise, 

galen mad, crazy raise one' s self, get up 

hjalp help ropa (r) call out, shout, cry, 

handa (ua) happen, befall call 

ingen (n. intet, plur. inga) segla (1) sail 

no, no one, none skratta (1) laugh 

lik(a)som as just as slatt (3) plain 

liv n. (5) life stalle n. (4) place 

lycklig happy sucka (1) sigh 



XVII THR SUBJUNCTIVE 121 

sasom as, like varje every, each 

tea'ter (2) theater varld (2) world 

tillsa'mmans together alska (i) love 

tyst silent, quiet 
underlig strange, curious, pe- 



culiar 



EXERCISK XVII. 



A. i. Om jag kunde, sa ville jag nog. 2. Jag gar 
Vare sig du vill eller icke. 3. Ack, om det snart bleve 
var. 4. Om jag vore kuug, sa skulle du bli drottning. 
5. Gud give oss ett gott nytt ar. 6. Om det ieke blaste, 
sa skulle vi fara ut pa sjon och segla. 7. De sutto dar 
underligt tysta och sago ut over ha vet. 8. Korsbaren 
se ut som om de vore mogna, men de aro ieke goda. 
9. D^t fitins ingen i hela varlden, som vet detta. 10. 
Om det icke vore vackrare pa andra stallen, sa skulle 
jag genast resa hem igen. 11. Var det nagot du ville 
saga? 12. Hade han bara gjort som jag sade, sa hade 
det varit battre bade for honom och andra. 

B. The mother and her children lived a happy life 
together in the little house up on the mountain. When 
the cherries had begun to ripen, Fridolf and Violanta 
were sitting together one day under the cherry-tree at 
the brook. "Listen, 1 sister," said the boy, "do you 
think that there is 2 any more beautiful place in the 
world than here?" — "I don't know," answered Violanta. 
— "But there are 2 none in the whole world who are as 
happy as we," said Fridolf. — "Well, 3 who knows?" 
answered Violanta. "We don't know how others are situ- 
ated." 4 — "But every day is happy with us, and all days 



1 H6r du. 3 Ja. 

2 Det firms. 4 Ha det. 



122 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 

are alike here." l — "Yes, all days are alike here," said 
Violanta and sighed. 

Just then- some ripe cherries fell down from the tree 
into the brook and floated away. "Whither are you 
sailing away? Whither are you sailing away?" cried 
Violanta. "To the wild waves of the sea. To the wild 
waves of- the sea," answered the berries and disappeared. 

Violanta got up and looked out over the extensive 3 
land below her. The wind was blowing 4 over the plain, 
and farthest away she saw the dark-blue line. "The wild 
waves of the sea. The wild waves of the sea," Vio- 
lanta said 5 slowly. "I too want to go to them." 

Fridolf laughed. "You won't go away from mother 
and me and from our dear little home up here among 
the cherry-trees," he said. 5 Violanta did not answer, 
but Fridolf saw that there was something that she was 
pondering over. She began to be so strangely quiet and 
preferred to sit 6 alone at the brook and look out over 
the extensive land at her feet. 

C. Da hade han vant sig om och sett en gammal 
dagakarl, som stod bojd over sin spade. "Ar det du, 
som suckar sa djupt," hade herr Karl sagt. "Vad har 
du att sucka over?" — "J a g ma val sucka, som ska 7 
ga har och arbeta i jorden dag ut och dag in," hade da 
dagakarlen svarat. Men herr Karl hade ett haftigt 
humor, 8 och han tyckte inte om att folk klagade "Har 
du inte annat att klaga over?" hade han ropat. "Jag 
sager dig, att jag skulle vara nojd, om jag finge ga och 
grava i Sormlands jord i all min tid." — "Matte det ga 
ers nade sa, som ni onskar," hade dagakarlen svarat. 



1 Are alike likna varandra. 5 Invert in translating. 

2 I rletsamma. 6 Salt heist. 

3 Vid. 7 See § SUS- 
4- Detblaste. S Hutno'r. 



XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 1 23 

Men sedan sade folk, att herr Karl for det talets skull 
efter doden inte hade fatt ro i sin grav, utan var natt 
brukade komma till Stora Djulo oeh grava i sin lust- 
gard. Ja, nu fanns det varken slott eller lustgard mer 
darborta, utan dar de en gang skulle 1 ha legat, var det 
nu bara en vanlig skogsbacke. Men om nagon skulle ga 
genom skogen en mork natt, sa kunde det handa, att 
han finge syn pa lustgarden. 

D. 1. I should go with you if it were not raining. 
2. May he never return. 3. I shouldn't be eating the 
cherries if they were not ripe. 4. You have nothing to 
complain about. 5. If I were not so old, I should be 
able to work more. 6. Would you be satisfied if he 
gave you a crown? 7. He used to come to the park every 
night. 8. He had no peace in his grave. 9. May you 
soon get well. 10. If it were dark, you would see 
nothing. 11. May no misfortune befall them. 12. If 
my parents permitted me, I should become a sailor. 



1 Were said to. 



1^4 THE PASSIVE XVII I 

LESSON XVIII. 

THE PASSIVE. 
1!)7- The passive is formed by means of the addition 
of the ending -.9 to the corresponding active form. In 
the compound tenses this is affixed to the supine or in- 
finitive, and not to the auxiliary. The final -r of the 
singular of the present indicative is dropped before the 
-s of the passive. Examples of the passive inflection are: 



PRESENT: I. 


II. 


III. 


STRONG 


jag, etc., kallas 


kbpes 


tros 


bjudes 


vi kallas 


kbpas l 


tros 


bjudas l 


I kallens 


kbpens 


trons 


bjudens 


de kallas 


kbpas 


tros 


bjudas 


PAST: 








jag, etc., kallades 


kbptes 


troddes 


bjbds 


vi kallades 


kbptes 


troddes 


bjbdos 


I kalladens 


kbptens 


troddens 


bjbdens 


de kallades 


kbptes 


troddes 


bjbdos 



FUTURE: skall kallas, kbpas, tros, bjudas 
PRESENT PERFECT: har kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits 
PAST PERFECT: hade kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits 
FUTURE PERFECT: skall ha{va) kallats, kbpts, trotts, bju- 
dits 
INFINITIVES: kallas, ha{ya) kallats; kbpas, ka(va) kbpts, 

tros, ka(va) trotts; bjudas, ha(ya~) bjudits 
SI' PINE: kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits 
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE: 

jag, etc., kalles kbpes bjudes 

vi kalles kbpes § 3 bjudes 

I kallens kbpens S ° bjudens 

de kalles kbpes ~ bjudes 



1 Observe that the first aud third persons plural differ from the singular 
in the present indicative of the Second Weak Conjugation and the Strong 
Conjugation. 



XVIII THE PASSIVE 125 

Or, ma (matte) kaUas, kopas, tros, bjudas. 
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE: 

I. II. III. STRONG 



Same as the past indicative. 



bj'ddes 
bj'ddes 
bjbdens 
bj'ddes 



Or, skulle kallas, kopas, tros, bjudas. 

Note. — 1. In the singular of the present indicative passive the 
e of the ending -es (Second Weak Conjugation and Strong Conju- 
gation) is very often dropped, unless the nature of the preceding 
sound makes this impossible or difficult; as, kdp(e)s, kdr(e)s, 
jinn(e)s; but, lases. 

2. The past participle, though passive in meaning, does not take 
-s; on its formation and inflection see . 

3. Agent is expressed by av by. 

4. When no agent is expressed, Swedish sometimes uses the in- 
definite pronoun man one, they, people, and the active, where 
English would have the passive; as, man sciger or det sages it is 
said. See § Sjg . 

198. The passive idea may also be expressed by 
means of an auxiliary combined with the past participle. 
The auxiliary is put in the form corresponding to that 
wanted for the passive. The past participle agrees with 
the subject in gender and number. 1 

The auxiliary most used is bli{va) , which may be 
employed with all verbs. In the past singular, however, 
vart, from varda, 2 may be employed instead of blev; the 
other forms of varda are archaic. 

Durative verbs (see ) may take vara as auxili- 
ary. When bliva is used with such verbs it often calls 
attention to the beginning of the action. Vara empha- 
sizes its duration. 



1 On the formation and inflection of the past participle see §jj »2Z< Zm- 
Care shoul d be taken not to confuse the past participle with the active 
supine; cf. § !!■'"—,. 

'J See page ™, foot-note ™. 



[26 THE PASSIVE XVIII 

Note. — i. The auxiliary bliva, when used in the present, gen- 
erally expresses future time (see ). 

2. The auxiliary- passive and the passive in -s are on the whole 
used interchangeably, without much difference in the shade of 
meaning. In the present tense, however, the s-form is the more 
common, except when the reference is to future time, in which 
case bliva is usually employed. Especially is the ^-passive regu- 
larly used in general statements, rules and directions. Ex.: Min 
klocka drages upp varje dygn. My watch is wound every twenty- 
four hours. Stold straffas med fdngelse. Theft is punished with 
imprisonment. Observe the use of this form also in recipes, where 
English employs the imperative: Applena skalas, skaras i bitar, 
och kamhusen tagas bort. Peel the apples, cut them in pieces and 
remove the cores. Note also: Fdrva'ras pa kyligt stalle. Keep in 
a cool place. 

199- The forms of the auxiliary-passive are: 

PRESENT: ALL VERBS DURATIVE VERBS 

jag , du % han, hon, den blir bjuden, dlskad dr dlskad 

det blir bjudet, dlskat dr dlskat 

vi bli{va) bjudna, dlskade dro dlskade 

I bliven bjudna, dlskade dren dlskade 

de bli(va) bjudna, dlskade dro dlskade 
PAST: 

jag, etc., blev {vart) bjuden, dlskad var dlskad 

det blev {varf) bjudet, dlskat var dlskat 

vi blevo bjudna, dlskade voro dlskade 

I bleven bjudna, dlskade voren dlskade 

de blevo bjtidna, dlskade voro dlskade 

FUTURE: skall bli{va) bjuden, dlskad skall vara dlskad 

PRES. PERF.: har blivit bjuden, dlskad har varit dlskad 

PAST PERF.: hade blivit bjuden, dlskad hade varit dlskad 

and so on, in the other forms. 

Note. — The English expressions consisting of the verb "be" 
and the past participle are not always passives. We have passives 
in cases like the following: A large house is being built over 
there. How many houses are built annually in this city? If the 
knife is broken while in my possession, I shall pay you for it. The 



XVIII THE PASSIVE 127 

farm was sold last year. Very often, however, "be" is an inde- 
pendent verb followed by a past participle used like any predicate 
adjective. Ex.: That house is built of brick. My knife is broken. 
The farm was already sold. The sheet of paper that you gave me 
was torn half-way across. His life was insured for fifty thousand 
dollars at the time of his death. These expressions correspond, 
not to the present, but to the present perfect of the active. In 
case of doubt as to whether a construction is passive, change it 
into the corresponding active construction; if the tense does not 
remain the same, it is not a passive. These non-passive construc- 
tions call attention to the fact that the act is completed and is not 
going on, that a result which has been reached remains in present 
time. If the past tense is used, the meaning is that the result 
which had been reached remained in past time. In the present 
perfect and past perfect, the meaning is that the result has been 
present or had been present, often with the implication that it is 
no longer there. 

[n Swedish these expressions are rendered by vara, correspond- 
ing to Eng. "be," and the past participle. In Swedish, and so in 

English, the resultive verbs (see ) are used in this way. Ex.: 

Brevet ar skrivet. The letter is written. Han ar sdrad. He is 
wounded. Huset var redan byggt. The house was already built. 

Observe, then, that the. Eng. "be" combined with the past 
participle of resultive verbs frequently has a meaning not passive, 
but that one and the same auxiliary is used in both cases. In 
Swedish, on the other hand, an entirely different word, bliva (or, 
in the past sing., vart) is used as the auxiliary of the passive. 
Vara, corresponding to Eng. "be" may be employed only in the 
case of durative verbs. 1 Vara with the past participle of resultive 
verbs does not have passive meaning. 

200. SUMMARY: In English, 

PASSIVE NON-PASSIVE 

DURATIVE ' ' be " + past part . 

RESULTIVE "be" -+- past part. "be" + past part. 

In Swedish, 

IJUR.: - s, bliva {vart) , vara -\- past part. 

RES.: -s, bliva (vart),-\- past part. vara -\- past part. 



1 As the number of transitive durative verbs is rather limited the passive 
use of the auxiliary vara is not of frequent occurrence. 



128 THE PASSIVE XVIII 

201. DEPONENTS. 1 Many verbs have s-forms with 
active meaning, (i) Of some verbs that have both active 
and passive forms used in the regular way, the .r-forms 
may also be employed in an active sense, but generally 
with so ne distinction of meaning from that of the active 
forms. .S-forms so used are called deponent forms. These 
are used absolutely, that is, without an object expressed. 
Most of them mean 'to harm" or "annoy" one in some 
way. Ex.: Han nyps. He's pinching me (some one). 
Jag bara narrades. I was just fooling. Den hdr hasten 
bits. This horse bites (is in the habit of biting people). 
Det branns. It's hot. (You'll burn yourself. It has 
the characteristic of burning anyone that touches it.) Jo- 
han slass. John is hitting me (some one). De slass for 
sitt la?id. They are fighting for their country. 

(2) In the case of many verbs there are no active 
forms, the s forms being the only ones used, and these 
always with active meaning. Such verbs are called depo- 
nent verbs. A number of these are even transitive, and 
may take an object. Ex.: andas breathe, hoppas hope, 
minnas remember, lyckas succeed. 

Note. — 1. A number of deponent forms and a few deponent 
verbs are used (in the plural) with reciprocal 2 meaning. Ex.: 
Hastarna bitas. The horses are biting each other. Vi hjalptes 
at. We helped each other. De mottes. They met. De klappas 
och kyssas. They caress and kiss one another. De brottas. 
They are wrestling. Karl och Johan slass. Carl and John are 
at blows. Some have reflexive meaning; as, gladjas 3 rejoice. 
When ambiguity would arise, the use t>f the s-forms as passives 
is generally avoided in the case of verbs that employ these forms 
more often with reciprocal or reflexive than with passive meaning. 



1 On the participles of deponents, see § 216, note 2 and § 218, note 2. 

2 These could be called reciprocal and reflexive deponents, to distinguish 
them from the other deponents. 

3 This form is identical in meaning with the reflexive expression gVddja 
sis: see page SZ, foot-note. 



XVIII THE PASSIVE 129 

2. Verbs of the Second Weak Conjugation and the Strong Con- 
jugation of which the j-forms may be used either with passive or 
active meaning, drop the e in the present singular (cf. § 197, note 
1) when the sense is active, but almost always have -es when the 
sense is passive. See the examples above, nyps, bits, brdnns. 

202. ORTHOGRAPHY: minnas, mindes; branna, brdnde. 
Observe the double ^ in slass. 

203- PRONUNCIATION: djup, kylig , kyssa, kdrnhus, 
pipskaggig, tidigt, hastigt, karl (cf. Karl). — Observe the 
change of the vowel both in quantity and quality in 
slass, from sld, and vart, from varda; note also the change 
in the final consonant of varU — Ifra'n may be pronounced 
with the a long or short (with different quality). 

204. ACCENT: (1) The following words have acute 
accent: forva'ra, tillba'ka, detsa'mma. — When stressed on 
the first syllable, framat may have either the acute or 
the grave accent. 

(2) The singular of the present indicative passive end- 
ing in -es usually has grave accent, but it may also take 
the acute. 

205. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) On the whole, the spoken 
language prefers the active construction to the passive. 
This is especially the case when the agent would be ex- 
pressed. When the agent is not indicated, the passive 
is more freely used, though the indefinite pronoun man 
often takes its place. 

(2) When the passive construction is used in the 
spoken language, the auxiliary-passive is generally em- 
ployed, while the s- forms with passive meaning are 
avoided. Particularly rare in the spoken language is the 
5-form of the supine (present perfect and past perfect 
tenses) . 

(3) When s-forms occur in the spoken language, they 
usualty have reciprocal or active meaning. Indeed, the 



130 THE PASSIVE XVIII 

spoken language uses deponent forms far more frequently 
than the literary language, especially those with active 
meaning. 

(4) Verbs having either -es or -.? in the singular of the 
present indicative passive, usually have -es in the writ- 
ten, but -s in the spoken language. Cf. . 

(5) In a large part of Sweden (but not in Gotaland) 
the auxiliary vart occurs very frequently in the spoken 
language, while in others it is not used. 

(6) In easy speech a long-root vowel is shortened when 
-.? (for es) is added in the singular of the piesent in- 
dicative; as, hops, bits, nyps, kbrs (sometimes), tros; cf. 
s/dss, in which the Shortened vowel is always used when 
this word has reciprocal or active meaning. 

(7) In eas} T speech tzdig, tidigt, hastig, hastigt are pro- 
nounced without the g; so also middag. — Fbrklade is in 
easy speech shortened to fbrkla (acute or grave accent). 

VOCABULARY. 

alltja'mt always, constantly, hoppas (1) hope 

continually klappa (1) knock, rap, clap, 

andas (1) .breathe caress; -s, dep. recipr. 

bita (STR.) bite; bitas bite kyssa ( 1 1 b) Hrc/ -s,dep. recipr. 

bred broad, wide locka (1) entice, tempt 

bredd (3) breadth, wideness lyckas (1) succeed; be success - 

bredvi'd beside fid 

brottas (1) wrestle, struggle langsam slow 

branna (na) burn (tr.) middag (2) mid day, noon, 

djup deep; n. (5) depth dinner 

folja (na) follow; foljas at minnas (11a) rcmember 

accompany each other, go mork dark 
together 



XVIII THE PAvSSIVK 131 

narra (i)fool, deceive; -s, dep., soka (11b) seek, look for 

joke, trifle, fib tidig early 

nypa (STR.) pinch; -s, dep., tillba'ka back 

pinch tills until 

na (111) reach, arrive at tanka (11b) think; — pa 
sak (3) thing, matter think of 

skaka ( 1 ) shake ur out of, from; ut ur out of 

smaningom by degrees, gradu-vakna (1) awake 

ally viska (1) whisper 

springa (STR.) run vanta (1) wait, await, expect 

stiga (STR.) walk, step; stiga overa'llt everywhere 

upp get up 
susa (1) murmur, whisper, 

sough 

EXERCISE XVIII. 

A. 1. Du brukar aldrig ga sa har tidigt, 1 om jag 
minns ratt. 2 2. Vem blev vald till ordf orande ? 3. Kors- 
barstraden skakades av vinden. 4. Nar ban tyckte att 
han vantat lange nog, gick han hem. 5. Rom blev icke 
byggd pa en dag. 6. Ma han lyckas i allt. 3 7. Han 
sages vara sjuk. 8. Minns du vem det var som du talade 
till? 9. Jag blev narrad. 10. Om du vantar tills jag 
kommer, sa skola vi hjalpas at. 11. Fienden var nu 
slagen. 12. Jag hoppas att du gor sa gott 4 du kan. 
13. Huset saldes i gar. 14. Gossarna slass. 15. Mid- 
dagen var redan aten. 16. Grenarna bojdes av vinden. 
17. Kunde vi icke traffas pa nagot stalle i morgon for 
att talas vid om 5 de Mr sakerna? 18. Har han lyckats 
finna sin bok ? 19. Foljdes ni at till Stockholm? 

1 As early as this. 4 See g 52- 

2 Correctly, rightly. 5 To talk over. 

3 Everything. 



i;2 THE PASSIVE XVIII 

20. Varfor blev lian satt i fangelse? 21. Vi tnifTades pa 
teatern i gar kvall. 22. Vad sitter du och tanker pa? 

B. One morning wlien Fridolf and his mother awoke, 
Violauta was gone. 1 They looked for her everywhere, 
they waited from morning till 2 noon and from noon till 
evening, but she did not come. 

Then the mother went to the brook and asked it: "Can 
you tell me who 3 has enticed away my little girl?" — 
"The wild waves of the sea. The wild waves of the 
sea," sang the brook and hurried on. Then she lcoked 
up into the cherry tree and asked: "Will she never come 4 
back? Will my child never come 4 back?" Then the 
cherry-tree shook its crown and whispered: "The wild 
waves of the sea. The wild waves of the sea." 

But then the mother and Fridolf wept, for the}^ felt 5 
that they would 6 never again 7 see Violanta. 

Earl}- one autumn morning 8 Violanta had awakened. 
She got up and went out of the house quietly, and put 
her shoes on 9 outside. Then she began to run. She 
followed the brook until she reached the valley. There 
the brook flowed along more quietly. Gradually it grew 
in depth and width until it flowed as a broad river 
through the silent, dark forest, where the high trees 
soughed above it. Violanta ran beside it constantly. I 
will follow 10 it, she thought. I will follow 10 it wherever 11 
it goes. Then I shall no doubt reach them at last, 12 the 
wild waves of the sea. 

C. "Jo, det ska 13 jag saga dig," sade gumman, "att min 

8 Hnstmorgon. 

9 Put on. tog pa sig. 

10 Use present tense. 

11 Vart. 

12 Till sist. 

13 See I ZZ2. 



1 


Borta. 




2 


; ill. 




3 


Vem som 




4 


Use present 


tense. 


5 


Kande med 


sig. 


6 


Skulle. 




7 


Mera. 





XVIII THE PASSIVE 133 

egen far en gang sag den. Han kom gaende 1 genom 
skogen en sommarnatt, och plotsligen sag han bredvid 
sig en hog tradgardsmur, och ovanfor den skymtade han 
de raraste trad, 2 som var 3 sa tyngda av blommor och 
frukter, att grenarna hangde langt ut over muren. Far 
gick helt sakta framat 4 och undrade var tradgarden hade 
komtnit ifran. 5 Da oppnades hastigt en port i muren, 
och en tradgardsmastare kom ut och fragade om far inte 
ville se hans lustgard. Karlen hade spade i hand och 
bar ett stort forklade som andra tradgardsmastare, och 
far skulle just folja honom, nar han kom att kasta en 
blick pa hans ansikte. Med detsamma 6 kande far igen 
den spetsiga pannluggen och pipskagget. Det var all- 
deles herr Karl, sadan far hade sett honom avbildad pa 
tavlor pa alia herrgardar, dar far hade arbetat. 

C. i. Your friend seems to be satisfied with his new 
work. 2. A large hole had been made in the corner. 
3. When he returned the gate had been opened by an 
old man. 4. The chair has been painted at last. 5. Boys 
that fight are naughty. 6. English is spoken in America. 
7. Do 3'ou know when these flowers were picked? 8. He 
will be hurt if he does not look out. 9. I hope that he 
will do it as well as he can. 10. They didn't remember 
who he was. 11. Does your neighbor's dog bite? 12. 
We'll meet again to-morrow, I hope. 7 13. He was struck 
by a bullet in the last war. 14. Shall we not help each 
other? 15. He is breathing very heavily. 16. Is he not 
ashamed now? 17. You have aged much. 18. In the 
evening we went to the theater together. 



1 Present participle. 5 Ifra'n. 

2 See I 141. 6 All at once. 

3 See § 27, 1. 7 Invert. 

4 Fra'mat or frama't. 



134 COMPOUND VERBS XIX 

LESSON XIX. 

COMPOUND, REFLEXIVE AND IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

200. COMPOUND VERBS. From the point of view of 
the relation between the components, verb-composition 
is of two kinds: 

(i) CLOSELY ATTACHED. Ex.: bera'tta relate, under- 
visa instruct, anga concern, omtala relate. Cf. in Eng., 
begin, understand, upset. The verb proper stands last, 
and the two components can not be separated by other 
words. The components are written together without 
intervening space, as one word. Except in the case of 
the prefixes be-, for- and ent-, the affix 1 is stressed, 
the verb proper having a secondary accent. 

(2) LOOSELY ATTACHED. Ex.: tala o'm relate, £yz a'n 
do, be allowable, tycka o'm like. Cf. in Eng., get off, 
set out, look over. The verb proper stands first, and 
the two components can be separated b) T other words. 
In writing, a space is left between the two components, 
as between two words. The stress rests on the affix, 
the verb proper being unaccented. 

207- There are three types of compound verbs: 

(1) INSEPARABLE compound verbs are those whose 
components are always closely attached; the components 
cannot be separated by other words. Ex.: bera'tta relate, 
nndervisa instruct, anga concern. 

(2) SEPARABLE compound verbs are those whose com- 
ponents are always loosely attached; the components can 
be separated by other words. Ex.: tycka o'm like, ga 
a'n do, be allowable. Den ddr boken tycker jag visst icke 
o'm. I certainly do not like that book. Det gar nog 
an. That will do, no doubt. 



1 The term "affix" includes both "prefix" and "suffix." 



XIX COMPOUND VERBS 135 

(3) INVERTIBLE compound -verbs. Many compound 
verbs may have either the closely or the loosely attached 
form of composition, without change of meaning. The 
affix is stressed whether it precedes or follows the verb 
proper. Ex.: omtala or tala o'm relate, genomldsa or liisa 
ge'?iovi read through. In some cases, however, such 
verbs have figurative meaning when closely attached, but 
literal meaning when loosely attached. Ex.: Han avbrbt 
samta/et. He discontinued the conversation. Han brot 
a'v happen. He broke the stick. 

Note. — 1. In the past participle the components are always 
closely attached, in all types of compound verbs. Ex.: Han brot 
a'v kappen. Kappen ar avbruten. Alia tycka o'm honom. Han 
dr allmdnt (universally) omtyckt. But the supine does not show 
this peculiarity. Ex.: Han har brutit a'v kappen. Jag har alltid 
tyckt o'm honom. On the present participle of compound verbs, 
see page 143, foot-note. 

2. Some separable compounds have the same components as 
inseparable compounds, but with entirely different meaning, 
being, in fact, different verbs. These are not included under the 
term "invertible" compounds. ~Ex.:utse elect, choose; se ut appear, 
look; anga concern; gd an do, be allowable; avgd depart, leave; gd 
a'v break (intr. ). Cf. Eng., overlook, look over; upset, set up. 

3. Compound verbs having the loosely attached form must, 
when followed by a noun, be carefully distinguished from a simple 
verb followed by a prepositional phrase. The affix of the verb- 
compound is stressed, while the preposition is unaccented. Ex.: 
Ha?i brot a'v kappen. He broke the stick. Han bro't av brodet. 
He broke (a piece) of the bread. En sals innehdller alltid en sak, 
som man ta'lar om, och en sak, som man talar o'm. A sentence 
always contains one thing that one talks about, and one thing 
that one tells. 

208. The following prefixes are always closely attached 

(inseparable): be-, bi-, ent , er-, for-, gen-, har-, miss-, 
sam-, um-, und-, van-, veder-, a-. 

Adverbs and prepositions may be either closely or 
loosely attached (inseparable, separable or invertible). 



136 COMPOUND VERBS XIX 

Adjective compounds are usually invertible; as, rbdmala 
or mala rod paint red. Some, however, are inseparable; 
as, godkanna approve. 

Noun compounds are usually inseparable; as, radfraga 
consult. Some, however, are invertible; as, aktgiva or 
giva a'kt pay attention. 

Note. — Care should be taken not to confuse the unaccented 
prefix for- (always closely attached) with the accented affix fore- y 
fore (closely or loosely attached). Ex.: forstd understand, forest a 
manage, be imminent. 

209 Compound verbs do not differ in their inflection 
from simple ve r bs, except as indicated above. A synop- 
sis of the iuvertible verb omtala, tala om relate, is here 
given. 

CLOSELY ATTACHED LOOSELY ATTACHED 

Pres. jag omtalar talar om 

Past omtalade talade om 

Future shall omtala shall tala om 

Pres. Perf. liar omtalat har talat om 

Past Perf. hade omtalat hade talat om 

Fut. Perf. shall ha(ya) shall ha(va) talat om 

omtalat 
S-PASS1VE: 

Pres. omtalas tolas om 

Past omtalades talades om 

Future shall omtalas shall tolas om 

Pres. Perf. har omtalats har talats om 

Past Perf. hade omtalats hade talats om 
Fut. Perf. shall ha {y a) om- shall ha(va) talats om 

talats 
AUXILIARY-PASSIVE: 
Pres. blir omtalad 1 

Past blev omtalad 



1 Observe that the auxiliary passive, being formed with the past parti- 
ciple, has no loosely attached forms. 



XIX REFLEXIVE VERBS 137 

AUXILIARY-PASSIVE : 
Future skall bli{ya) om- 

talad 
Pres. Perf. har blivit o?ntalad 
Past Perf. hade blivit omtalad 
Fut. Perf. skall ha{ya) blivit 

omtalad 

REFLEXIVE VERBS. 

210. A reflexive verb is one that has as object a 
reflexive pronoun (see § 162), that is, a pronoun refer- 
ring back to the subject; the subject is both the doer 
and the recipient of the action. Reflexive verbs are 
used much more extensively in Swedish than in English. 
They are most conveniently divided into two groups: 

(1) REFLEXIVE FORMS. Any transitive verb whose 
sense permits may be used with reflexive meaning, 
through the addition of the reflexive pronouns; as, 
tvinga sig force one's self, skada sig hurt one's self. 

Frequently the verb has a developed meaning when 
used in the reflexive form. Particularly often does the 
reflexive form have the intransitive meaning correspond- 
ing to the transitive meaniug of the non-reflexive forms. 
In these cases English almost always uses merely an 
intransitive verb, 1 without the reflexive pronoun. In 
many verbs the English idiom differs from the Swedish 
also in other respects. Examples of difference in idiom 
are: gifia sig marry (intr.), be married; glddja sig 
rejoice; tvdtta sig wash (intr.), wash one's self; bbja sig 
bend (intr.), stoop; lagga sig lie down, go to bed; satta 
sig sit down, be seated; befinna sig be, do (intr.), fare; la?-a 



1 Many English verbs are either transitive or intransitive; as, bend, 
move, change, turn. As this is much less frequently the case in Swedish, 
care must be taken not to transfer the English idiom to Swedish, incor- 
rectly. 



138 REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL VERBS XIX 

learn; erinra sig remember; fbrky'la sig catch a cold; 
klada sig dress (intr.), dress one's self; rora sig move 
)intr.); ondra sig change (intr ); akta sig take care, be 
on one's guard; v'anda sig turn (intr ); skyndd {sig) burr)-. 

(2) REFLEXIVE VERBS. Some verbs are not used ex- 
cept reflexively, that is, tliey are never used without a 
reflexive pronoun; as, begi'va sig betake one's self; 
misstaga sig be mistaken; f'orha'sta sig be over hasty, act 
under the impulse of one's first feelings; tilldi'aga 1 sig 
occur, take place. 

Note. — 1. There is no reflexive passive. 

2. The intensive pronoun sjalv (see \ 162, note) may be used 
with the reflexive pronouns. 

3. Swedish sometimes uses the ending -s to express the reflexive 
idea (see § 201, note 1); as, gladjas (= gladja sig) rejoice; nar- 
tnas (= narma sig) approach; skdmmas be ashamed. 

211. The inflexion of these verbs is regular: 
PRESENT PAST 

jag misstager mig miss tog mig 

d?i misstager dig misstog dig 

11 i misstager er misstog er 

/ian, hon, den, det misstager sig misstog sig 
vi misstaga oss misstogo oss 

I miss tag en eder misstog en eder 

de misstaga sig misstogo sig 

FUTURE J a S ska// misstaga mig 
PRES. PERF. jag har misstagit mig 
PAST PERF. jag hade misstagit mig 
FUT. PERF. jag shall ha (va) misstagit mig 

RECIPROCAL VERBS. 

212. The reciprocal idea is expressed by the plu- 
ral verb-forms of transitive verbs in the active, followed 
by the reciprocal pronoun vara'ndra each other. Ex.: 

1 Tilldraga attract, with entirely different meaning, is, however, not 
reflexive. 



XIX IMPERSONAL VERBS 139 

De dlskade vara'ndra. They loved one another. Vi kunna 
icke fbrsta! vara'ndra. We can not understand each 
other. 

Note. — In a number of verbs Swedish uses the ending -s to 
express the reciprocal idea; see § 201, note 1. 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

21H. Impersonal verbs are in Swedish used more ex- 
tensively than in English. They are of various types: 

(1) Verbs referring to the phenomena of nature; as, 
det regnar it is raining, det snbar it is snowing, det fryser 
it is freezing, det dskar it is thundering, det blaser it is 
windy, det ar varmt it is warm, det ar mbrkt it is dark, 
det ar sommar it is summer. 

(2) A large variety of other expressions: as, det knac- 
kar somebody is knocking, det ringer there is a ring, det 
r'dr sig something is moving, det gdller concern, be at 
stake, det bar av go. 

(3) In the case of many verbs, some of these even 
intransitive, the passive may be used impersonally. Ex.: 
Det dansades hela natten. There was dancing the whole 
night. Men runt ikring soves, angslas av oroliga sinnen, 
anas av hjdrtan som langta. Och det grates mot brngott, 
som kan tats vied spetsar, och det skrattas i drbmmar . . . 1 
But round about people are sleeping, there is worrying 
by restless minds, foreboding by hearts that long. And 
some are weeping against pillows that have been bordered 
with lace, and some are laughing in their dreams . . . 

Note. — Det is also used as an expletive, anticipating the sub- 
ject of a verb, corresponding to Eng. "there." In Swedish, the verb 
is always put in the singular, irrespective of the number of the 
following noun. Ex.: Det var en gang e?i liten gosse, som . . . 
There was once a little boy who . . . Det syns ansikten bakom 
fonsterrutorna. Faces appear behind the window-panes. Hade 

1 This passage quoted from Levertin, vol. Ill, p. 207. 



i-j-o IMPBRSONAL VERBS XIX 

det hdnt ndgotf Had anything happened? Det hade fallit myckct 
sno Much snow had fallen. 

Note especially the expressions dct finns (more rarely, det gives) 
and dct dr, deno ing mere existence. Det dr is more definite than 
dct Juins. Ex : Dct finns manniskor, som ic/ce hava ndgot sam- 
vctc. There are people who have no conscience. Har finns det 
sd myckct att titta pd. There is so much to look at here. Det 
fanns fartyg af manga olika slag. There were ships of many 
different kinds. Jag undrar om det finns levande varelser ddr. 
I wonder if there are are living beings there. Det dr ingenting 
a mi at att gora an . . . There is nothing else to do than . . . 
Dct dr manga, som tro det. There are many who believe that. 
Det var en gang tre pojkar-som gingo i samma skola. There 
were once three boys who attended the same school. 

214- ACCENT: Verbs containing the unaccented pre- 
fixes be-y for-, ent- usually have the acute accent; as, 
befinna, begi'va, forky'la, forha'sta, f'drstd'. 

215. COLLOQUIALISMS: (0 In the case of invertible 
compounds the written language on the whole prefers 
the closely attached form, 1 while the spoken language 
regularly employs the loosely attached form. 

(2) Very many inseparable compound verbs belong pri- 
marily to the written language; this is the case especially 
with many of the verbs containing the prefixes named 
in § 208 (beginning), which are of foreign origin. 

(3) In the spoken language vara'nn is frequently used 
in place of vara'ndra. 

EXERCISE XIX. 

Note. — Beginning with this exercise, the general vocabulary 
must be consulted for unfamiliar words and idioms. 

And the river grew and grew. At last it reached a 
large lake, and hurled itself into its waves. Violauta 



1 Even in the written language the closely attached form of invertible 
compounds is in most styles less common now than formerly. 



XIX COMPOUND VERBS 141 

followed the shore of the lake. At the opposite end of 
the lake, the river caine forth again, stronger and fresher, 
as if it had gathered new strength from its water. 

But here there was 1 a mill. High up on the stairs 
above the wheels stood the miller himself. He was round 
and white as a flour-bag, and beside him stood his three 
little children, round and white as freshly-baked wheat- 
rolls and with eyes black as raisins. 

When the miller caught sight of the girl who came 
running, he called to her: ' 'Whither away, 2 little girl, 
so early in 3 the day?" — "To the wild waves of the sea," 
answered Violanta, and ran on. — "O wait a little and 
calm yourself," cried the miller. "No waves can be 
wilder than the waves in the river, but I have never- 
theless forced them to turn the mill-wheels and grind 
the grain. And you may be sure things are jolly here. 4 
There is dancing 5 and work 5 the whole day." 

Violanta stopped. She heard the mill-wheels rumble 
and clatter. She heard people laughing 6 and singing 6 
in the mill. "If you want to enter 7 my service," said 
the stout miller, "you shall get plenty of food and drink, 
and a new dress for s Christmas." — "What's the dress- 
goods like?" 9 asked Violanta. — "You can see 10 that then," 
answered the miller and laughed. 

Violanta entered 11 the service of 1 " 2 the miller. The 
wheels went night and day. Bag after bag of the very 
whitest flour was carried up. The miller was just as 



1 Use a form of "ligga". 6 Use infinitive. 

2 For away vise the impersonal 7 Komma i. 
"det bar av." 6 Till. 

3 Pa. 9 What's . . . like, hurudant fir. 

4 Du ma tro att har gar det lus- 10 Can see, far se. 
tigt till. 11 Tog. 

a Use impersonal passive. 12 Hos. 



142 COMPOUND VERBS XIX 

friendly and good as be was stout, and his wife was still 
more friendly, and still more fat. 

The only ones who did not work were the little chil- 
dren. The}- sat on the flour bags most of the time eat- 
ing 1 wheat-rolls, played at hide-and-seek among the 
flour-bags, or stood looking 1 at the mill wheels. 



1 Do not use participle in Swedish. 



XX PARTICIPLES 143 

LESSON XX. 

PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE. 

216- PRESENT PARTICIPLE. The present participle 1 
ends in -ande, but verbs whose infinitive ends in an 
accented vowel have -ende; as, talande, kopande, finnande; 
but troende, seende. 

The present participle is indeclinable (see § 128), but 
it takes -s in the genitive when used as a noun; as, en 
dbendes sista ord the last words of a dying person. When 
employed as an adjective, the present participle may be 
compared by means of mer^a), mest. 

Note. — 1. The verbs kava, bliva, bedja, taga, draga employ 
only the longer form (see §178,2) in the present participle. 

2. The present participle of deponents ends in -ande (-e?ide), 
but a few take the ending -andes when not used attributively. Some 
have no present participle. Ex.: Minnandes sitt Wfte infann han 
sig, ehuru han cir en aldrande (from dldras) man. Remembering 
his promise, he came although he is getting well along in years. 

Also a few verbs that are not deponents take -andes in certain 
expressions. Ex.: Han kom akandes. He came driving. 

217- The present participle is used: (1) As an adjec- 
tive, attributively or predicatively. As is the case with 
many adjectives, so some adjectival participles can be used 
adverbiall}'. Ex.: De funno ett sovande barn. They found 
a sleeping child. Hon sag pa honom med en forskande 
och djup blick. She looked at him with an enquiring and 
penetrating glance. Kblden dr bitande. The cold is 
piercing. Han talade svenska flytande. He spoke Swedish 
fluently. m 

(2) As an adverbial modifier of the predicate. Ex.: Hon 
gick tiggande kring landet. She went about the country 



1 In the case of compound verbs .only the closely attached form can be 
employed when the present participle is used attributively; in other cases 
the loosely attached form of composition is possible. 



1 41- PARTICIPLES XX 

begging. Hon bad grdtande om en slant. Weeping, she 
asked for a piece of money. Han svarade skrattandc. 
He answered laughing. De kommo akande i en droska. 
They came riding in a cab. Jag foil av vagnen och blev 
liggandc i dikcf, tills folk horn och hjiilpte mig. I fell off 
the wagon and lay (remained l>ing) in the ditch until 
people came and helped me. 

Note. — i . Where English uses the participle to tell the circum- 
stances under which the act of the main verb takes place (time, 
cause, concession, etc.), Swedish usually employs a clause instead. 
Ex.: Being ill, I decided to stay at home. Emedan jag var sjuk, 
beslutade jag att stanna hemma. 

2. After the verbs hora and se, Swedish does not use the parti- 
ciple, as English may do. Ex.: Jag horde dem tala. I heard 
them talking. — On the use of the infinitive in Swedish, where Eng- 
lish idiom requires the verbal noun, see § 220, 2. 

3. As English uses the participial ending -ing, so Swedish em- 
ploys -ande, -ende in the formation of verbal nouns. Det var ett 
fasligt springande fram och tillbaka. There was an awful running 
back and forth. 

218- PAST PARTICIPLE. In weak verbs the past par- 
ticiple can be found by dropping the -e of the past 
indicative; on the formation of the past part, of strong 
verbs, see § 156, and page rJJ, foot-note jj. Past parti- 
ciples are inflected like adjectives. See § 126, 8, a. 

Note. — 1. Transitive verbs, both durative and resultive, have 
the past participle, which has passive meaning. Also intransitive 
resultive verbs have the past participle; its meaning is active. The 
meaning of the past participle varies as follows: 
Transitive resultive action completed, passive: funnen 

Transitive durative action going on, passive: disk ad 

Intransitive resultive action completed, active: kommen 

Intransitive durative no past participle. 

2. Most deponents have no past participle. 

3. On the supine as connected with the neuter of the past 
participle, see § 156. 

219- The past particle is used like an .adjective. Ex.: 



XX PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE 145 

Var alskade konung. Our beloved king. Segern dr vu?i- 
nen (cf. § 199, note). The victory is won. 

Note especially its use in forming the auxiliary-passive; 
see §" 198. 

Note. — The past participle of resultive verbs, both transitive 
and intransitive, denotes an action as completed (see § 218, note 
1). In § 199, note, we have seen the past participle of transi- 
tive resultive verbs used in a passive sense with vara, to denote a 
result attained in the past as remaining in the present. The 
past participle of intransitive resultive verbs may be used in an 
active sense (cf. § 218, note £) with vara, to denote a result attained 
in the past time as remaining in the present. Ex.: Han var redan 
gdngen. He was already gone. Varen dr kommen. Spring is 
here. S&ngen dr tystnad. The singing has ceased. Blomman 
dr vissnad. The flower is withered. Ar han dnnu icke aterkom- 
men? Has he not returned yet? (Isn't he back yet?) Anga- 
ren ar sjunken. The steamer has gone down. 

INFINITIVE. 1 

220. The leading differences between Swedish and 
English in the use of the infinitive are: 

(1) Swedish much more frequently uses the infinitive 
without att to. (a) A number of Swedish verbs are 
followed by the infinitive (as object) without att, while 
the corresponding English verbs employ "to". Ex.: 
Han dmnade komma. He intended to come. Jag hoppas 
trdffa honom i morgon. I hope to see him to-morrow. 
(b) Many Swedish verbs are followed by the infinitive 
with or without att, while the corresponding English 
verbs require "to"; as, /ova promise, synas seem, appear, 
tanka intend, bbrja begin, bedja ask, bnska wish. 

(2) Swedish in several constructions employs the in- 
finitive where English has the verbal noun: 



1 The future infinitive, which is of rare occurrence, is formed by means of 
the inf. skola. followed by the pres. inf.; as, skola tala, etc. — The perfect infini- 
tive has been given in the paradigms under the various conjugations. 



146 INFINITIVE XX 

M >3t prepositions can be followed by att and the 
infinitive when the subject of the infinitive is the - 
as that of the leading verb. 1 The English idiom requires 
a preposition with the verbal noun, and sometimes the in- 
finitive with "to" (but without a preposition' 2 ). Ex.: 
Han gick ford/ utan att ha/sa. He passed without 
greeting. Du far valja emellan att sitta stilla och att bli 
id. You may choose between sitting still and being 
dismissed. Genom att vara sparsam, blir man rik. One 
becomes rich through saving. Jag ar stolt over att vara 
svensk. I am proud of being Swedish. Jag trbtinade via 1 
att viinta. I became tired of waiting. Jag ar glad over 
att vara hem ma /gen. I am glad to be at home again. 
Han strlivar ejter att bl/va rik. He is striving to 
become rich. 

(b) When Swedish has the infinitive depending on a 
noun, English frequently uses the verbal noun, preceded 
by the preposition "of." Also after adjectives English 
sometimes uses the verbal noun. Ex.: Jag hade n'ojet 
(att) mottaga ert brev. I had the pleasure of receiv- 
ing your letter. Konsten att bli rik. The art of becom- 
ing rich. Boken ar icke vcird att lasa. The book is not 
worth reading. 

(c) A number of English verbs may be followed either 
by the infinitive or the verbal noun; a few are regularly 
followed by the verbal noun. Swedish idiom in all such 
cases requires the infinitive. Ex.: Han undvek att svara 
mig. He avoided answering me. Hon har upphbrt att 



1 When the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the leading- 
verb, Swedish uses after the preposition att that, and a finite form of the 
verb. Ex..- Och utan att jag mlirkte det. sVdto sig mina ogoh. And my eyes closed 
without my noticing it. 

2 Cf.. however, in English: ''There is nothing to do except to go along." 
"He is about to go.'" 



XX INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE 147 

sjunga. She has ceased singing (to sing). Han har slu- 
tat att arbeta. He has stopped working. 

Note. — I. Swedish sometimes uses the infinitive in indirect 
statement, where English idiom requires a clause. Ex. : Jag tror 
mig hava raft. I believe that I am right. Han sager sig hava 
I id it mycket. He says that he has suffered much. Jag anser mig 
uppfylla ruin skyldighet. I feel that I am doing my duty. Jag 
tyckte mig hora e7i stdmma. I thought that I heard a voice. 

B:>th Swedish and English employ the infinitive when the main 
verb is passive, but Swedish does not use att to. Ex.: Han sades 
hava lid it mycket. He was said to have suffered much. 

2. In Swedish, as in English, purpose is frequently expressed 
by the infinitive with att to, when the subject of the purpose 
clause is the same as that of the main verb. In Swedish, however, 
the preposition for is usually placed before att. Ex.: Jag har 
kotnmit hit for att tala med dig otn ett och annat. I have come 
here to talk to you about a few things. Da reste han sig upp for 
att gd. Then he got up to go. 

3. Concerning the exclusive use of the infinitive in Swedish after 
the verbs se och hora, see § 217, note 2. 

4. Concerning the split infinitive, see § 116. 

IMPERATIVE. 

221- Second person singular. The mere stem of the 
verb is used (see page 86, foot-note 2). Its forms are 
accordingly: (1) tala, (11) hop, (in) tro, (STR.) jinn. 

First person plural: I at (or latoin) oss tala, k'dpa, tro, 
finna. 

Second person plural. This is identical with the cor- 
responding form of the indicative: talen, kofien, tron y 
Jinn en. It occurs chiefly in the elevated style; outside 
of this the singular imperative is used also for the plural. 

Note. — i. The imperative of the passive can not be used. Depo- 
nents (see § 201) add -s to the forms given in § 221; in the forms 
that have an auxiliary, the -^ is added to the dependent infinitive 
(cf. § 197). 

2. Formerly all Swedish verbs except those whose infinitive ends 
in an accented vowel had the ending -om in the first person plu- 



148 SYNTACTICAL REMARKS XX 

ral of the imperative. This is now used chiefly in the ecclesiastical 
style, being archaic. Only lata, employed as auxiliary in the first 
person plural imperative, may now end in -om; even this has 
archaic associations, however, the singular Idt generally being used 
instead. 

SYNTACTICAL REMARKS. 

222. PAST FOR PRESENT. Swedish sometimes uses 
the past tense of the verb vara, where English idiom 
requires the present. This use of the past tense empha- 
sizes the first impression, which is already past. Coming 
to something which one considers beautiful one could 
say: Det var vackert. That is beautiful. (How beauti- 
ful!) Further examples are: Det var utmarkt. That is 
fine. Det var roligt att du kan komma. I am glad you 
can come. Det var da besynnerligt att jag inte kan jinna 
boke?i. It is strange that I can't find the book. Det var 
roligt att g'bra er bekantskap. I am glad to make your 
acquaintance. 

Note. — On the use of various tenses, see §§ in, i and 160, note. 

223. PROGRESSIVE. Swedish does not, like English, 
have a special way of expressing the progressive idea 
(see § 21). But when the idea of continued action 
is very prominent, Swedish uses hdlla pa or hdlla pa 
med be engaged in, be occupied with, with att and 
the infinitive of durative verbs. Ex.: Han haller pa 
(med) att dta. He is just eating. Han holl pa att mala 
/inset. He was engaged in painting the house. Han 
haller pa att raka sig. He is just shaving. 

Note. — 1. When employed with resultive verbs, hdlla pa 
means "be near," and the idea is not progressive; in this use hdlla 
pd med does not occur. Ex.: Gossen haller pa att drunkna. The 
boy is near drowning. Jag holl pd att glomma det. I was near 
forgetting it. Han holl pa att bryta av sig benet. He was near 



XX SYNTACTICAL REMARKS 1 49 

breaking his leg. Jag holt pa att tappa klockan. I was near 
dropping the watch. 

2. To emphasize the progressive idea Swedish sometimes places 
before a verb another durative verb such as sitta, std, ligga, con- 
necting the two verbs with och. Ex.: Han ligger och sover. He 
is sleeping. Jag satt och skrev, da du kom. I was writing when 
you came. Nu star du och pratar dumheter. Now you are talk- 
ing nonsense. Vad sitter du och tanker pa f What are you 
thinking of? 

In the spoken language also halla pd may be so used. Ex.: 
Han halter pd och ater. He is eating. 

224. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i)The present participle is less 
used in the spoken than in the literary language, espe- 
cially in the construction mentioned in § 217, 2. The 
spoken idiom prefers hon gick och tiggde to /ion gick 
tiggande. — The verbal noun in -ande, -ende is of com- 
paratively limited occurrence in the spoken language. 

The past participle is on the whole less employed in 
the spoken than in the literary language, except in the 
use mentioned in § 199, note, and in the auxiliary- 
passive, which is in the spoken language usually em- 
ployed in place of the ^--passive. 

(2) The infinitive in indirect statement is not used in 
the spoken language, which employs instead an indicative 
clause introduced by att that. 

(3) In the spoken language various expressions are 
used with the imperative to make it sound less harsh. 
Ex.: G'dr det, sd dr du snail. Please do that. Also, om 

jag far be if I may ask, is so used. Note also: Var sd 
god och g'dr det. Var snail och gbr det. A question may 
take the place of the imperative. Ex.: Vill nz vara sd 
god och g'dra detf 

(4) The use of the past for the present (see § 222) 
belongs primarily to the spoken language. 

(5) On the colloquial use of hdller pa och see § 223, 
note 2. 



150 PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE XX 

EXERCISE XX. 

Violanta was a strong and powerful girl who worked 
cheerfully, 1 and all liked her. On Saturday evenings 
when the work of the week was finished and the wheels 
stopped, the people got permission to dance on the lawn 
above the fall. The miller's servant played the fiddle. 
He played faster and faster, to see how lightly Violanta 
could whirl about and how high she could jump, and 
then he laughed and said: "I believe you are swifter 
than the mill-wheels themselves." 

When Christmas came, all the people got their pay 
and in addition a Christmas present. Violanta got a 
pair of new shoes and also the dress-goods which the 
miller had promised her. 

[During] the entire Christmas pericd things were 
lively 2 in the mill. There were visits 3 from other mills, 
and all the boys that came were anxious 4 to dance with 
Violanta. She was so young and beautiful, and could 
dance like a whirlwind. The miller's servant had to 
bring out 5 the fiddle all the time, fi but while he played 
his eyes followed Violanta, and every time she went past 
him, he sent a friendly word after her. 

Then it happened one evening when Violanta was 
dancing, that her braid fell down. She ran aside 7 to 
braid it again, but when she came past the miller's serv- 
ant, he cried out: "Well, 8 look at the wild waves of 
the sea." — "What do you mean by 9 that?" asked Vio- 
lanta and stopped. — "I mean only that your locks -are 
fluttering and rolling like the waves of the sea," he 



1 Med liv och lust. 6 Standigt. 

2 Gick det muntert till. 7 Sin Tag. 

3 Detkombesok. 8 Nej. 

4 Ville garna. 9 Med. 

5 Had to brine out. maste fram med. 



XX PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE 15* 

said. But his words reminded Violanta of something that 
shi had forgotten, and after that evening she was not 
as before. She went to her work more quietly, and no 
longer danced with the same joy. 1 

When spring came, Violanta often went down to the 
lawn above the fall and sat down on the little bench 
under the large blooming bird-cherry trees. While she 
sat there alone one evening, the miller's servant came 
walking and asked that he might sit beside her on the 
bench. 



1 Med samma lust. 



is- AUXILIARIES XXI 

LESSON XXI. 

AUXILIARIES. 

225. Several Swedish auxiliaries have somewhat more 
complete forms than those of English, particularly in the 
perfect system. The difficulty is thus in a number of 
instances due to the English rather than the Swedish idi- 
om. Most of the auxiliaries have a weak past tense, be- 
loning to the Second Weak Conjugation (see § 169, 5) 
Their inflection is more or less irregular. In several 
instances, forms that have endings characteristic of the 
past tense are used with present meaning. 

226. Hava (for conjugation, see § 169, 5, and § 170, 
note 1) is in the present system used with the supine to 
form the tenses of the perfect system. See § 156. 

Note. — As an independent verb hava means "have," "possess." 

227- Vara (see § 175) may be used with the past 
participle of transitive durative verbs to form the auxi- 
liary-passive. See § 198. 

Note. — 1. Vara is also employed as an independent verb, 
meaning "be." Note especially its use with the past participle of 
resultive verbs, both transitive (see § 199, note) and intransitive 
(6ee § 219, note). 

2. There is also a verb vara, conjugated according to the First 
Weak Conjugation, meaning "last." Ex.: Stormen varade i fern 
dagar. The storm lasted five days. Sa lange det varar. As long 
as it lasts. Det varade ej lange innan jag mdrkte detta. It was 
not long before I noticed this. 

228. Bli(va) (see §§ 113, 176, 1) is employed with the 
past participle of transitive verbs, to form the auxiliary- 
passive. See § 198. 

Note. — 1. The forms of bliva may be united with the present 
participle of some verbs of position; as, bliva liggande fall prost- 
rate, come, to lie (there), remain (lying there); bliva sittande get 
stuck, stick, remain seated, keep one's seat; bliva stdcnde stop, 
come to a stand, remain standing. 



XXI AUXILIARIES 153 

2. As an independent verb bliva means "become," "remain." 
Ex.: Han blir nog frisk. He will get well, no doubt. Han blev 
strax ond. He at once became angry. Bliv ddr du dr. Stay 
where you are. Huru lange blir du hdr? How long are you 
going to stay here? — Note especially the expression lata bli, used 
with att and the infinitive or independently of an infinitive, mean- 
ing "cease," "leave off." Ex.: Lat bli. Don't. Lat bli del ddr. 
Stop that. Lat bli mig. Let me alone. Lat bli att lata. Stop 
talking. Don't talk. 

229- Varda (see page 107, foot-note), may be employed 
in the past sing., in place of bliva, with the past participle 
of transitive verbs, to form the auxiliary-passive. See 

§ 198. 

Note. — The past singular is also used as an independent verb, 
but is also in this case limited to certain localities (cf. § 205, 5). 
Ex.: Han vart ond. He became angry. 

230. Skola, pres. ska//, skola; past skulle, supine sko/at. 
It denotes: 

1. Futurity. The present of skola is used with the 
present and perfect infinitive of verbs, to form the future 
and future perfect tenses; see §§ no, 160 and note. The 
past of skola followed by the present infinitive frequently 
denotes time as future to a definite time in the past. 1 
Ex.: Vi skulle just g a till bords, da du kom. We were 
just going to sit down to table when you came. 

2. In the principal clause of a conditional sentence 
skul/e followed by the infinitive may be used in place of 
the past subjunctive. See § 190. In this and the follow- 
ing uses skulle does not refer to past time. 

3. Will. Ex.: Vad s kail jag gbraf What shall I do? 
Jag skall ha del, trots honom. I will have it in spite of 
him. Han skall, antingen han vill eller inte. He shall, 
whether he wants to or not. Jag skall aldrig gbra sa 
vier. I will never again do that. 



1 Such past future time may he past, present or future to the present 
time, 



154 AUXILIARIES XXI 

4. Duty, obligation: Du skall vara radd om din hdlsa. 
You ought to take good care of your health. Det skulle 
du inte ha gjort. You should not have done that. Ni 
skulle ha svarat lionom, aft . . . You should have answered 
him that . . . Man skulle straffa lionom. He ought to 
be punished. 

5. Reputation, general opinion: Hon skall vara mycket 
rik. She is supposed to be very wealthy. Han skall 
hava rest till Amerika. He is said to have gone to 
x\merica. 

6. Other uses: Han sade alt han skulle komma igen. 
He said that he would come back. Om jag skulle raka 
honom ... If I should meet him . . . Om han skulle 
fa veta det, sa bleve han ledsen. If he should find it out, 
he would feel bad. 

Xote. — i. Swedish idiom prefers ski-. lie ha vantat (cf. English) 
to hade skolat vdnta should have waited. 

2. Skola may also be used independently of an infinitive. Ex.: 
Jag skall hem. I shall go home. Jag skall till staden i morgon. 
I shall go to town to-morrow. Vart skall du han ? Wnere are 
vou going? Vad skall du med den dcir boken? "What do you 
want that book for? Vad skulle han dar? What business had 
he there ? 

231- Ma, matte (does not refer to past time): 

1. Ma and matte are used to express a wish, in place 
of the <?-subjunctive. See §§ 184, 189. 

2. Ma (not ?ndtte) is used in place of the ^-subjunctive 
to express concession. See § 191. 

3. Matte (not ma) may express likelihood, supposition: 
Det matte vara hemskt. It must be grewsome. A T u matte 
han vdl vara framme. He must be there by now, I should 
think. Det matte veil ej vara mbjligt. It can't be possible, 

can it? 

Note. — There is another verb ma (pres. mar, ma; past mddde, 
supine matt), belonging to the Third Weak Conjugation, which 
means "do," "feel." Ex.: Hur mar du? How are you? 



XXI AUXILIARIES 155 

232. Kunna (see §§ 113, 169, 5) denotes: 

1. Ability. Ex.: Jag kan icke jinna boken. I cannot 
find the book. Jag kunde icke komma i gar. I couldn't 
come yesterday. Du kunde nog komma, om du ville. 
You could no doubt come if you wanted to. 

2. Possibility: Jag kan misstaga mig. I may be mis- 
taken. Det kan vara sant. It may be true. Sddant kan 
hdnda. Such things will happen. Jag kunde just tro det. 
I might have known it. 

3. Permission: Nu kan du gd. Now you may go. 

4. Habit, repeated action: Hdr ka?i vara mycket varmt. 
It is sometimes very warm here. Han kunde sitta i timtal 
och skriva. He would sit writing by the hour. 

Note. — 1. Swedish idiom prefers kunde ha vdntat (cf. English) 
to hade kunnat vanta. Ex.: Jag hade kunnat gora (or kunde ha 
gjort) det, men jag ville inte. I could have done it, but I didn't 
want to. 

2. Kunna may also be used without a following infinitive. Ex.: 
Kan du din Icixa? Do you know 1 your lesson? Han kan engel- 
ska. He knows English. 

233. Vilja (see §§ 112, 169, 5) denotes: 

1. Will. Ex.: Jag vill gd. I want to go. Jag bad 
honom komma, men kan ville inte. I asked him to come,, 
but he didn't want to. Gbr som dti vill. Do as you wish. 
Hur mycket vill du ha ? How much do you want ? Vad 
vill du alt han skall gora ? What do you want him to 
do? Vill du vara sd god och hjdlpa mig ? Please help me. 
Mm klocka vill inte gd. My watch won't run. Veden vill 
inte brinna. The wood won't burn. Det vill saga. That is. 

2. Modest statement: Jag ville heist trdjja honom i dag. 
I should prefer to see him to-day. Du ville vdl inte vara 
snail och be honom komma f Would you kindly ask him 
to come? 

1 Other words meaning "know," but not usable here, are veta, kanna, 

Cf. . 



156 AUXILIARIES XXI 

Note. — Vilja is frequently used independently' of an infinitive. 
K\ . : Det vill fag intc. I don't want to. Vad vill du migf 
What do you want with me? Jag vill dig veil. I wish you well. 
Hundcn vill in. The dog wants to get in. Vart vill ni? Where 
do you want to go? 

234. MaSt8, supine mast. Maste refers to past as well 
as to present time. Ex.: Nn maste jag ga. Now I must 
go. Jag kundc ej komma, ty jag maste skriva brev. I 
couldn't come, for I had to write some letters. Jag hade 
mast vd?ita, om jag velat trdjja honom. I would have been 
obliged to wait if I had wanted to see him. 

Note. — 1. For the missing infinitive, other verbs must be em- 
ployed, as nbdgas, vara tvimgen. 

2. On fa lov alt, see § 240, 2. 

3. Maste is sometimes used without a dependent infinitive. Ex.: 
Jag maste hem. I must go home. 

235. Lar, plur. Idra, expresses relatively certain like- 
lihood or probability, generally such as is based on report. 
Ex.: Han lar vara hemkommen. People say that he has 
returned. Vi Idra Ja krig. They say that we are going 
to have war. Jag lar aldrig mera aterse honom. I am 
not likely to see him again. Han lar vara sjuk. He is 
reported to be sick. Du lar ha sagt delta. You are 
reported to have said this. 

236- Tora, pres. tor, tbra; past torde. Both for and 
torde refer to present time; tor is less frequently used, 
being somewhat archaic. Also this word denotes likeli- 
hood or probability, but less certain than that denoted 
by lar. Ex.: Han tor komma s?iart. He will perhaps 
come soon. Det torde icke vara ombjligt. I dare say it 
would not be impossible. Ni tor veta vad jag menar. 
I dare say you know what I mean. Som man torde erinra 
sig. As will probably be remembered. 

Note. — This idea is very often expressed by adverbs, as ?wg> 
allt, visst. 



XXI AUXILIARIES 157 

237- Bora, pres. bbr, bora; past borde; supine bort. 
Borde almost always 1 denotes the same kind of time 
as bbr. This word denotes: 

1. Duty, propriety: Du borde skiimmas. You ought to 
be ashamed. Man bbr hdlla sitt Vbjte. One should keep 
his promise. Han borde ingen mat fa. He ought not to 
get an>' food. Bbr jag gbra detf Ought I to do that? 

2. Expectation, calculation: Tdget bor vara har om fyra 
minuter. The train should be here in four minutes. (A 
little later) Nu borde det vara heir. Now it ought to 
be here. 

Note. — Swedish idiom prefers borde ha vdJitat (cf. English) to 
hade bort vanta. Ex.: Han hade bort gora (or borde ha gjort) 
det. He ought to have done it. 

238. Lata (see £ 175) is used: 

1. In the form /at (or latom) with the infinitive, in 
the first person plural of the imperative. See § 221. 

2. Permission: Jag /at honom ej gbra det. I didn't let 
him do it. Lat hojiom sova. Let him sleep. Lat viig se. 
Let me think. Lat det vara. Let the matter rest. Never 
mind. Lat set vara. Granted. Very well. Lat vara att . . . 
What though . . . Cf. lata b/i; see § 228, note 2. 

3. "Cause some one to do a thing." Ex.: Jag har /atit 
dig vanta. I have kept you waiting. Jag har /atit sy 
mig en rock. I have had a coat made. Jag lat laga roc- 
ken. I had my coat mended. 

Note. — There is also a verb lata, conjugated in the same way, 
meaning "sound." 

239. Komma (see § 175) expresses: 

1. Futurity, with att and the infinitive. See S in, 2. 

2. "Happen to," almost only in the past tense. Ex.: 
Han kom att gd fbrbi. He happened to pass by. 

3. "Cause some one to do a thing." Ex.: Han kom 



1 Except sometimes in subordinate clauses. 



158 AUXILIARIES XXI 

mig ait fro den dar histo'rien. lie got me to believe that 
story. 

Noic. — As an independent verb it means "come." 

240. Fa (see £ 178) expresses: 

1. Permission. Kx.: F&r jag gaf May I go? Far man 
rbka hart Is smoking permitted here? (Lit.: May one 
smoke here?) Det far du icke. No, you must not. 

2. Necessity: Du far stanna hemma. You will have to 
stay at home. Man far tala mycket har i varlden. One 
has to put up with a great deal in this life. Sum gosse 
fick han ofta svalta. As a boy he often had to starve. 

Han kommer a ft fa vlinta. He will have to wait. — Also 
fa /or aft 1 is used in the same meaning. 

3. With the infinitive of the verbs libra, se, veta it 
denotes the beginning of the action of these verbs. Ex.: 
fag fick veta det i gar. I found it out yesterday. Vi fa 
se. We shall see. Sd snart jag far se Jwnom. As soon as 
I see (catch sight of) him. 

4. "Cause some one to do a thing." Kx : fag fick 
honom inte att saga eit ord. I couldn't get him to say a 
word. 

Note. — As an independent verb it means "get," "receive," 
"obtain." 

EXERCISE XXI. 

At first he sat there for a long time and was silent, 
as if it were hard for him to come out with that which 2 
he wanted to say, but at last it came. He then asked 
Violanta humbly whether she would not be able to love 
him a little, and become his wife. 

If Violanta promised to become his wife, he would prom- 
ise to make her whole life as happy as a dance. "Why, 3 



1 Fa lov may also, especially in questions, mean "gret permission." Ex.: 
Far jag lov '< May I? Om jag far lov. If I may. 

2 That which, varl. 3 Vi tva aroju . . . 



XXI AUXILIARIES 1 59 

we two are as [if] made 1 for each other," he said. Vio- 
lauta seemed surprised, almost a bit frightened. She had 
never thought that she and the miller's servant were as 
[if] made for each other. But when she looked at his 
face and saw how sincerely he meant it, she asked him 
to come early the next morning 2 to the same place, and 
she would give him her answer. And with that he would 
have to be satisfied. 3 

Early the next morning before the sun was yet up, 
Violanta went down to the lawn at the river. She bent 
down over the waves so that the foam blew into her 
face. 4 "Whither are you hurrying away?" she whispered. 
"Whither are you hurrying away?" — "To the wild waves 
of the sea. To the wild waves of the sea," answered 
the river and rushed on. — "Oh, yes," said Violanta aloud 
and spread out her arms. "I too am going there." 

And then she tied her kerchief about her hair and 
began to run as fast as she could along the narrow path 
which led through the pastures along the river. 

When the sun rose, also the miller's servant rose, and 
went down to the lawn at the fall. Not finding Violanta 
there, 5 he smiled and thought: "She'll come, all right. 
The sun has just risen." He sat there until the noon- 
day sun glowed on the water, and when she still was 
not to be seen, he sighed and thought: "She will come, 
no doubt. The sun has not yet set." But when the 
sun at last set, he wept and thought: "She will never 
come." Aud she never came. 



1 Use form of "skapa" (i). <i Into her face, henne i ansiktet. 

2 Xasta raorgon, 5 Use temporal clause; see \ 217, 

3 Oeb darmed maste han lata note 1. 

sig: noja. 6 Was not to be seen, icke syntes till. 



PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS XXII 



LESSON XXII. 

PERSONAL, POSSESSIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

241. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. These 

have the following forms: 

NOM. OBJ. GEN. POSSESSIVE 

jag mig min y mitt, mina 

du dig din, ditt, dina 

ni er er, ert, era; (eder, edert, edra) 

lian honom hans 

hon henne kennes 

den, det dess 

vi oss vdr, vart, vara 

I, ni eder, er eder , edert, ed?-a; er, ert, era 

de dem deras - 



The special reflexive for the third person, singular 
and plural, is: 

sig sin, sitt, sina 

Note. — i. On the use of these pronouns, see §§ 6, note; 8; 9; 
22; 23; 35; 36; 41, 4; 161 ff.; cf. 101. 

2. In constructions for emphasis with det dr, det var, followed 
by a personal pronoun and a relative clause, the pronoun is put 
in the objective case by attraction, if the following relative is 
object, that is, if the pronoun in the unemphatic construction 
would be the object; the relative pronoun is usually omitted. Ex.: 
Det dr dig han vill trdffa. (Cf. Han vill trdffa dig.) You are 
the one he wants to see. Det dr dig han dr ond pa. You are 
the one he is angry at. Det dr oss han talar om. He is talking 
about us. Det var henne jag sag i gar. She is the one I saw 
yesterday. 

3. A genitive E{de)rs occurs with a few titles; as, E{de)rs 
majestdt Your Majesty, E(de)rs nad Your Grace. 

4. Particularly before derogatory words Swedish generally uses 
a possessive pronoun of the second person, while English employs 



XXII DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS l6l 

the personal pronoun; as, din lymmel you rascal, era bylingar 
you urchins, era stackare you wretches. 

5. The plural form of the possessive pronouns may be preceded 
by the prepositive definite article; these expressions embrace the 
members of the family: de mina, de dina, de vara, de sina. But 
de e(d)ra cannot be used. Ex.: Hur star det till med de dina? 
How are your people? 

6. On the use of sjdlv, see § 162, note. It may also be used in 
the def. form before a noun in the def. form, no prepositive definite 
article being employed (cf. § 124, note); as, sjalva doden death 
itself, sjalva kungen even the king. 

7. On the use of the reciprocal pronoun vara'ndra, see § 212. 
In the genitive it adds s. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

242. GENERAL RULE. Adjective pronouns, like ad- 
jectives, are not inflected in case, but substantive pro- 
nouns have a genitive ending in -s. Pronouns that can 
be used either substantively or adjectively have the 
genitive when used as nouns but not when employed as 
adjectives. This rule applies to all the following classes 
of pronouns (demonstrative, relative, interrogative, in- 
definite). Observe also the objective plural form dem 
of the demonstrative, 'used only substantively. 

243. The demonstratives are denna x this, this one, 2 
den that, that one, den h'd'r this (one), den dix'r that 
(one), samma (the) same, ^^a'wwfl 1 the same. Samma 
is used only as an adjective; the others are used both 
substantively and adjectively. They have forms as follows: 



1 The demonstratives densa'mma and denna are sometimes used in place of 
personal pronouns of the third person, chiefly to preclude ambiguity. Ex.: 
Fadern skrev till sin son, att denne maste resa hem. The father wrote to his son 
that he (,the son) had to come home. Jag sprang tillba'ka till skrivbor det, drag 
nt den lada, dllr jag en gang lagt ned nyckeln, och b'drjade leta efter densa'mma. I 
ran back to the desk, opened the drawer into which I once had put the key, 
and began to look for it. 
2 See foot-note 1 ? 267. 



l62 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 



XXII 



COMMON 


NEUTER 


denna (-*) 


detta 


^dennas 1 { «) 


*dettas 


den 


det 


*dess, *dens 


*dess 


den hd'r, 


det hd'r, 


den dd'r 


det dd'r 


samma (-e) 


samma 



PLURAL. 
dessa 
*dessas 

de 
*deras 
*dem 
de hd'r, 
de dd'r 
samma 

densa'mma (-e) detsa'mma desa'mma 

*de?isa' m?nas (-es) *detsa'mmas *desa'mmas 

Note. — i. The forms ending in -e, -es {denne, samme, den- 
samme) are used when reference is to persons of the male sex. 2 
Cf. § 126, 8, b and c. Ex.: Denne gosse dr sjuk. This boy is 
sick. Det dr samme man jag sag i gar. It is the same man I 
saw yesterday. Han dr alltid densa'mme. He is always the same. 

2. The genitive dess, which is used only in referring to things, 
is rare as a demonstrative; when this form occurs, it is usually the 
genitive of the personal pronoun (see §§ 241; 41, 3). The geni- 
tive dens is used only when a determinative (restrictive) clause 
follows (see below); it refers to persons. 

3. On the use of den Mr, den ddr, see § 249, 7 with references. 
These pronouns have no genitive even when used substantively 4 and 
no objective plural, to correspond to the forms dess, deras, dem 
of the pronoun den. Ex. : Tag de hdr. Take these. De ddr vill 
jag inte ha. I don't want those. 

4. Densa'mma (-e) is almost always used substantively, samma 
(-e) only as an attributive adjective. See the examples in note 1. Ob- 
Berve that densa'mma, though used substantively, does not have an 
objective form in the plural, corresponding to dem, from den; cf. 
the preceding note. The ending is in both these words that of 
the ordinary definite form of the adjective. 



1 The forms preceded by an asterisk are used only substantively (see 
g 242). When these pronouns are employed substantively all the forms 
given are used; when employed adjectively, only the forms not preceded 
by an asterisk are employed. 

2 In the dictionaries these pronouns will be found under the forms denne. 
samme, densavime. 



XXII DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 1 63 

2-44. VARIOUS USES OF DEMONSTRATIVES. Besides its 
ordinary demonstrative use, of which an example is given 
in £ 245, the pronoun den may be used as antecedent 
to a determinative (restrictive) clause. In this case it 
is usually rendered in English by "he," "the one," 
when used substantively, and by "the" when used adjec- 
tively. The genitive singular is in this case dens, which 
form can be used only in this way. Ex.: Den dsikten, 
att solen gar runt om jorden, dr langesedan dvergiven. The 
theory that the sun passes around the earth is long dead. 
De pronomina , vi nu fa/a om, kallas determinativa. The 
pronouns we are now talking about are called determina- 
tive pronouns. Jag har den aran att gratu/era. Allow 
me to congratulate you. (Lit.: I have the honor . . . ). 
Den som kommer sisf, far inte mycket. The one who 
comes last won't get much. Den dr ad/asf, som fdrst 
rdeker handen till for sorting. He is noblest who first ex- 
tends his hand in reconciliation. De som dro rika 
dro icke alltid lyckliga. Those who are rich are not always 
happy. Riitta dig efter dens rdd, som vill ditt basta. 
Follow the advice of him who wishes you well. Start 
dr deras antal, som blivit sz'ikna. Earge is the number 
of those who have been deceived. 

Note. — 1 . The neuter singular of demonstratives may be used 
irrespective of the number and gender of a predicate noun. Ex.: 
Detta dr samma hund, som jag sag i gar. This is the same dog 
I saw yesterday. Det har dr en gamma/ bok. This is an old 
book. Det ddr var en bra hast. That is a good horse. 

2 The neuters det and detta ma}' be used to represent any word 
or expression. Ex.: Jag dr gamma/. Det (= gamma/) dr du for 
resten ocksa. I am old. So are you, for that matter. Han dr 
skomakare. Det var hans far ocksa. He is a shoemaker. So 
was his father. Man bor gora sift basta Det kan vent som heist 
gora. One should do one's best. Any one at all can do that. 
Han anses vara rik. men det dr han inte. He is reputed to be 
rich, but he isn't. 



164 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS XXII 

3. On the use of adverbial compounds in place of demonstra- 
tives preceded by a preposition, see § 147, 1, note 2. 

24."). When these demonstratives are used as adjec- 
tives, the following noun is put in the definite form, 
except in the case of denna (-e) and samma (e). Ex.: 
Den (avian ar vackrast. That picture is prettiest. Bor 
du i det liar kusett Do you live in this house? On the 
other hand: Detta ar mitt sista ord i denna sak. This is 
my last word in this matter. Denna vackra stad ar 
Sveriges Jiuvudstad. This beautiful city is the capital of 
Sweden. Det ar samnie man. It is the same man. 

Note. — 1. Den is followed by the noun in the indefinite form 
when it is the antecedent of a determinative (restrictive) relative 1 
clause. Ex.: De gossar, som vilja folja med, fa rdeka upp kanden. 
The boys who want to go along may hold up their hands. Den 
sak (som) du talade om. The matter you were speaking of. Jag 
har sett det stdlle, varom du talar. I have seen the place you are 
speaking of. Det arbete, varmed du ar sysselsatt, synes aldrig 
bli fardigt. The work in which you are engaged seems never 
to become finished. De?i bok jag nu laser i ar rolig. The book 
I am now reading is amusing. Den plats ddr han tillbragt natten. 
The place where he had spent the night. Den dag skall komma, 
da du far dngra detta The day will come when you will be 
sorry for this. 

2. On the form of adjectives that follow demonstrative pro- 
nouns, see § 122, 2. 

246- OTHER DEMONSTRATIVES. Also the following 
adjectives have demonstrative meaning: sadan such; lika- 
dan similar, of the same sort; dylik such, similar. Both 
adjectives and nouns following these have indefinite form. 
These pronouns may be preceded by the indefinite article; 
observe in this case the differing word order in connec- 
tion with the English "such." Ex.: Sadana djur har 



1 Including clauses introduced by a relative adverb of time or place. — 
But the demonstrative den is almost always (except in certain phrases) 
followed by the noun in the def. form when a clause introduced by ait (fol- 
lowed by the indicative or infinitive) follows. See the examples in \ 24-4-. 



XXII 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 



165 



dn vdl aldrig sett f'drut. I suppose you have never seen 
such animals before. En sadan bok. Such a book. Han 
dr ej en sadan som du tror. He is not such a one as you 
believe. Sddant duger icke. Such a thing won't do. 
Han talade om vddret och annat dylikt. He talked about 
the weather and other things like that. 

247. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS. Note the following 
expressions connected with demonstratives: det gbr det- 
sa'mma it (that) doesn't matter, it (that) makes no dif- 
ference; i detsa'mma just then, at that moment; med det- 
sa'mma at once; till dess till then; innan dess before that; 
sedan dess since then; den trettonde de?ines the thirteenth 
instant. 

248. SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS USES OF "DEN". 1 
In previous lessons we have seen den employed (1) 
adjectively, as prepositive definite article (forms, den, det, 
de) and (2) substantively, as personal pronoun (forms, 
den, det, de, dem, dess, deras). In both these cases it 
is unaccented. 

Thirdly, we have in this lesson seen it employed as de- 
monstrative pronoun. As such it may be used either ad- 
jectively or substantively. When used adjectively, its 
forms are identical with those of the prepositive def. 
article. When used substantively, it has forms identical' 2 
with those of the personal pronoun. The demonstrative 
pronoun is accented (except, frequently, in the use men- 
tioned in § 244). In short: 

ATTRIBUTIVE USE SUBSTANTIVE USE 
{den, det, de) (de?i, det, de, de?n, dess, deras) 

Accent.: Demonstrative Demonstrative 

Unacc: Prepos. article Personal pronoun 



1 In addition, certain of the substantive forms of den may be used as 
relative pronoun; see the following lesson. 

2 The demonstrative has, in addition, the form dens: see § 243, note 2. 



1 66 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS XXII 

249. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) On the pronunciation of 
(/c/, de, dent, see §§ JJ; 27, 5; 166, 8. 

(2) On the use of titles in place of a personal pronoun 
of the second person, see § 13, 2. 

(3) In the spoken language the personal pronoun as 
subject is often repeated. Ex.: Han dr inte diim, han. 
He is not such a blockhead either. 

(4) The obj. form eder of the personal pronoun be- 
longs to the elevated style, er being the form otherwise 
used. On the contrary, the forms eder, edert, edra of 
the possessive pronoun are employed beyond the limits 
of elevated style, occurring in the ordinary literary and 
conversational style, which also employs er y ert, era. 
Easy speech, however, always has the shorter forms of 
the possessives. 

(5) On various uses of the personal pronouns, see 
§ 166, 6 and 8. 

(6) It is only in the elevated style that sjalv is used 
immediately after nouns, as in § JjJJJ. 

(7) On the use of den hdr for denna (e) , see §§ 13, 1; 
41, 1. So den dar is used instead of the demonstrative de?i. 

(8) The genitives dess and dens are not used in the 
spoken language; cf. § 41, 3, on the use of dess as gen. 
of the personal pronoun of the third person. 

(9) When den?ia is used in the spoken language (cf. 7, 
just above), it is regularly followed by the noun in the 
definite form. Cf. § 13, 1; 41, 1. 

(10) In the spoken language den is followed by the 
noun in the def. form also when it is antecedent to a 
restrictive relative clause (cf. § 245, note 1). In place 
of den followed by the noun in the def. form, merely 
the def. form of the noun is more often used in the 
spoken language, when the noun is not modified by an 



XXTI DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 1 67 

adjective. Ex.: Ge mig boken som ligger ddrborta. Give 
me the book that is lying over there. 

(11) The demonstrative pronoun dylik is foreign to the 
spoken language. So also expressions like den trettonde 
dennes (§ 247). 

(12) In the spoken language samma en is frequently 
used in place of densa'mma. — The use of denna and den- 
sa'mma mentioned in foot-note 1 on p. 161 is entirely 
foreign to spoken Swedish. 

EXERCISE XXII. 

But Violanta followed the course of the stream through 
pastures and groves, over fields and plains. And then the 
river came to a long range of green hills. When Violanta 
and the river arrived at the other side [of] the hills, 1 
[there] lay a beautiful region before them. Meadows 
full of tall grass and fragrant flowers spread out under 
oaks and linden-trees, and right on 2 the very prettiest 
meadow [there] was a large white house in a flower- 
garden. 

Violanta saw that in the shadow of a large chestnut- 
tree lay a woman in an easy-chair reading a book. She 
was tall and slender, and very pale. Her black eyebrows 
cast a shadow on her white cheeks, and over her black 
hair she had a violet-colored veil. Her dress was of the 
softest silk. 3 

She lay so quiet that Violanta at first thought that 
she was sleeping. But all of a sudden she looked up 
with a pair of large, thoughtful eyes. "Come closer," 
she said with a gentle voice and extended her hand. It 
was a slender, white hand, on which [there] flashed a blue 
jewel. "Whither are you running in this summer's 



1 Pa andra sidati kullarna. 4 Sommarvarrr.e. 

2 Mitt pa. 5 Jasa. 

3 Use prepositive, but no post- 
positive, article 



1 68 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS XXII 

heat?" 4 she asked. Violanta stopped, out of breath and 
warm. "To the wild waves of the sea," she answered. 
— "Oh yes," 5 said the beautiful lady and smiled, "so 
many go that way, but they rarely come back. You 
rather stay 1 with me; I may well need 2 you, and it is 
good to be here; the longer you stay with me, the more 
it will please you." 

Then Violanta asked in what way 3 she could help 
her, for she thought that this was a good place. "Well, 
you see," 4 answered the stranger, "I lie here quietly 
under the trees. I can see both the sky and the earth 
and the river; and I can read about all the wonders of 
nature in this book. But I lack one thing. 5 I cannot 
walk, but must always lie still." 



1 Stanna du hellre. 4 Invert, "ser du." 

2 Jag kan beho'va. 5 Men ett fattas mig. 

3 Pa vilket satt. 



XXIII RELATIVE PRONOUNS 169 

LESSON XXIII. 
RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
250- RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The relative pronouns 
are som, vilken, vad, den, de'n ddr and the genitive vars. 

251. Som, which is used only substantively, is the 
relative pronoun occurring most frequently. It is inde- 
clinable, and may be used in referring both to persons 
and to things, and to nouns of either gender or number, 
both in the subject and object relation. But it cannot 
stand in the genitive relation, the other relatives that 
have genitive forms being used instead. It may be gov- 
erned by a preposition, but the preposition must always 
follow, standing after the predicate. As a rule, the use 
of the other relative pronouns is avoided when som can 
be used. Ex.: Han dr en van, som jag kan lita pa. 
He is a friend on whom I can depend. Alia, som kanna 
honom, veta att han dr palitlig. All who know him, 
know that he is reliable. Delta dr ell dmne, som dr svart 
all behandla. This is a subject that is hard to treat. 
Den sak, som du talade cm. The matter that you spoke 
of. For further examples, see §§ 244; 245, note 1. 

Note. — After superlatives, and personal and indefinite pronouns, 
som is the relative regularly used. Ex.: Detta dr den vackraste 
stad, som jag n&gonsin sett. This is the most beautiful city I 
have ever seen. Ingen, som vill gd, beho'ver stanna hemma. No 
one who wants to go, need stay at home. 

252. Vilken, which may be used either adjectively 
or substantively, referring either to persons or things, 
has the following forms: 

COMMON NEUTER PLURAL 

vilken vilket 1 vilka 

vilkens vilkets vilkas 



1 On the substitution of t for » in the neuter, see \\ 3; 126, 1 and p. 66, 
foot-note. 



170 RELATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 

This pronoun is not of nearly so frequent occurrence 
as som. However, when an adjectival relative pronoun 
is needed, vilken must be used. As a substantive pro- 
noun it must be employed in place of som when the 
antecedent is a clause. Ex.: (Adj.) Sverige slot sig 1855 
till England och Frankrike, vilka stater da voro Rysslands 
fiender. In 1855 Sweden allied itself with England and 
France, which states were at that time hostile to Russia. 
(Subst.) Konnng Erik frigav sin broder Johan, vilket han 
sedan angrade. King Eric released his brother John, 
a thing which he afterwards regretted. 

Note. — 1. To some extent vilken (in its substantive use) and som 
are used interchangeably. 1 In some cases vilken may even be used 
to advantage: (1) Its use sometimes prevents ambiguity. Because 
it is inflected, it is generally clear what the antecedent is, while 
with som this may be doubtful. Ex.: Fonstren p& huset, hvilka vi 
betra'ktade. The windows which we were looking at in the house. 

(2) Sometimes it may be advantageously used for the sake of 
euphony, when som, as relative or conjunction, stands near. Ex.: 
Hans sldktingar, som nu kommit hit och vilka han ej sett pa 
lange, dro mycket rika. His relatives, who have now come here, 
and whom he has not seen for a long time, are very wealthy. 

(3) Some object to placing the preposition at the end of the clause, 
preferring to put it before the relative. In this case vilken must 
be emplo3 T ed. 2 Ex.: Den sak, om hvilken vi talade. The matter 
about which we were speaking. 

2. In place of the genitives, especially in the neuter, vars (see 
below), is frequently used. 

253- Vars, which, being a genitive, can be used only 
substantively, is employed chiefly in referring to a sin- 
gular antecedent, but sometimes also with an antecedent 
in the plural. The antecedent may be of either gender, 
referring either to persons or to things. Since som cannot 



1 Authors differ much in the extent o<" their use of vilken. some employing 
it freely beside som. and in no way limiting themselves to the uses here 
specified. 

2 See § 257, note 1, end. 



XXIII RELATIVE PRONGUNS 17 1 

be used iu the genitive relation, and since the genitive 
of vilken is not of particularly frequent occurrence, it 
follows that vars is the word usually employed to express 
the genitive idea in the case of relative pronouns. Ex.: 
Ingen vars samvete ar vaket ka?i handla sd. No one 
whose conscience is awake can do that. 

254. Vad, which is used only substantively, is neuter 
singular. When it is used as subject of the clause, som 
is added. This pronoun has two uses: (i) Meaning 
"that which," including its antecedent. Ex.: Vad die 
sager, ar sa?it. What you say is true. Sag allti'd, vad 
som ar sant. Always say that which is true. (2) With 
allt all, as the antecedent. 1 In this case a governing 
preposition must follow at the end of the clause. Ex.: 
Det ar allt vad jag har hbrt om honom'. That is all that 
I have heard about him. Allt vad jag fbrr glatt mig at, 
var nu borta. All that I had formerly delighted in was 
now gone. 

255. Den, which is used only substantively, is not of 
frequent occurrence. When used, it is employed chiefly 
for variety or euphony. It is inflected like the demon- 
strative den (see § 243), but can not be used in the 
genitive, nor as subject. Its forms, then, are den, det 
(these used only in the object relation), and dem. The 
neuter form is very little used. This pror.oun is rare 
as indirect object. It refers more often to persons than 
to inanimate objects. In prose, a governing preposition 
must follow at the eud of the clause. Ex.: En man, den 
alia bevi'sa aktning. A man whom all respect. Knn- 
gen lovade mig silt portra'tt det jag en tid efterat fick ?not- 
taga. The king promised me his picture, which I received 
some time later. Det liela var henne dnnu som en dr'dm, 



1 After allt also som may be used as relative pronoun. 



17-2 RELATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 

den lion sag in i och fbrWrade sig /. It was still all as 
a dream to her, which she looked into and lost herself 
in. Jag namner detta sdsom villkor, dent jag ej vill efter- 
giiMi. I state these as conditions, which I do not wish 
to retract. Alia plaiier, dem han icke fdtt fnllborda. All 
the plans which he had not been able to carry out. Per- 
so'ner, dcm alia hederliga miinniskor avsky. Persons whom 
all honorable people detest. 

256. De'n dar, which is used only substantively, is 
not of frequent occurrence. When used, it is employed 
chiefly for variety or euphony. It is inflected like the 
demonstrative den d'd'r (see § 243), having the forms 
de'n dar, de't dar, de' dar, and no genitive; note, how- 
ever, the difference in the syllable stressed. It can be 
used practically only as subject. It is employed perhaps 
more freely to refer to persons than to inanimate objects. 
Ex.: Rastlos sdsom en, den dar skall bbrja en lang resa. 
Restless like one who is about to start on a long journey. 
Detta far std sdsom ett pastaende, det dar for/a' ttaren efter 
beha'g kan antaga eller fbrka'sta. This may stand as an 
assertion which the author can adopt or reject as he likes. 
Den ndtvarande tiden for eter ganska manga tecken, de dar 
tyda pa fara. The present time shows very many signs 
that point to danger. 

257- GENERAL REMARKS ON RELATIVES. Relative 
pronouns may be omitted when they would be in the 
object relation (both direct and indirect). They may also 
be omitted when depending on a preposition; this then 
stands after the predicate. Cf. § 251. Ex.: Var dr den 
dar boken jag gav dig? Where is that book I gave you? 
Det var min bok dn tog. It was my book you took. 
Den bok jag nu laser i dr rolig. The book I am now 
reading is amusing. Hdr dr den gosse dn gav applet at. 



XXIII INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 173 

Here is the boy you gave the apple to. Vem var det du 
halsade pa ? Who was it you greeted ? 

Note. — 1. Som, den and vad (when used after allt) cannot be 
preceded by a preposition. When these relatives are governed by 
a preposition, this must stand at the end of the clause. For exam- 
ples, see under the various relatives. Vilken, while usually preceded 
by a governing preposition, may have it at the end of the clause. 

2. Iu proverbs and legal language the relative is sometimes 
omitted after den, when it would be subject. Ex.: Den ilia gor, 
han ilia far. He who does ill, fares ill. Den nagot spar, 
han nagot har. He who saves something, has something. Den 
det gor, straffas med boter. He who does that is liable to fine. 

3. On the use of adverbial compounds in place of relatives pre- 
ceded by a preposition, see § 147, note 2. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

258- The interrogative pronouns are vem who, whom; 
vilken which, who(tn); vad what; vad for en what (kind 
of); vilkendera which (of two); hurudan of what kind. 

259- Vem is used only substantively, as a singular, 1 
referring to persons. It may stand either in the subject 
or object relation. It has a genitive, veins. Ex.: Vem 
kommer i kvallf Who is coming this evening? Vem 
vill du trdffa f Whom do you want to see ? Vems 1ms. 
dr delta ? Whose house is this ? 

260. Vilken (for its forms, see § 252) is used both 
adjectively and substantively, referring either to persons 
or things Ex. : Vilken bok vill du ha f Which book do 
you want? Vilka voro hans vdnner f Who were his 
friends? Vilken har k'bpt husetf Who has bought the 
house ? Vilkens berd'ttelse tycker du bast om ? Whose story 
do you like best ? 

261- Vad is generally used substantively, as neuter 
singular, referring to things. It has no genitive. Ex.: 



1 Rarely as a plural. 



174 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 

/ 'ad sade du f What did you say ? Vad g'dr du f What 
are you doing? 

Sometimes it is used as an adjective (indeclinable), 
modifying nouns of either gender in the singular, rarely 
nouns in the plural. Ex.: Vad rati har du att gbra 
delta f What right have you to do this? Vad nytta hade 
du ddra'vf What good did you have from it? Pa vad 
grund handlade han sd? For what reason did he do that? 
Vad fbrdelar har du ddra'vf What advantages have you 
from it ? 

262. Vad for en, n. vad for ett, is ussd both adjectively 
and substantively. When employed substantively, the 
plural is vad for ena; as an adjective, the plural is vad 
for. In all forms vad may be separated from for with 
intervening words. There is no genitive. Ex.: Vad for 
en konung hade Sverige pa den tiden? What king did 
Sweden have at that time? Vad har du for m hattf 
What sort of a hat have you? Vad dr det for gossarf 
Who are those boys? Vad dr du for en? Who are you? 
(What sort of a fellow are you?) 

Before nouns which on account of their meaning can- 
not take the indefinite article, en, ett of the forms vad 
for en y vad for ett is omitted. Ex.: Vad dr det har for 
smbr (vatten)? What sort of butter (water) is this? 

263- Vilkendera, n. vilketdera, is generally used sub- 
stantively, sometimes also as an adjective, in which case 
the following noun is in the definite form. On account of 
its meaning it can be used only in the singular. The geni- 
tive is vilkenderas, vilketderas. Ex.: Vilkendera far jag f 
Which may I have? Vilketdera hicset kopte du? Which 
of the (two) houses did you buy ? Vilkendcras dr boken ? 
Whose is the book ? 



XXIII INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 175 

264. Hurudan, n. hurudant, plur. hurudana, is used 
only as an adjective. Ex. : Hurudant ar vattnet? How is the 
water ? Hurudana skor kopte du ? What kind of shoes 
did you buy? 

265- GENERAL REMARKS ON INTERROGATIVES. (i) In 
indirect questions the forms of the interrogatives given 
above are used only in the object relation. When the inter- 
rogatives are subject of an indirect question, som must 
be added. Ex.: (Direct) Vem har tagit den? Who has 
taken it? (Indirect, subject) Jag vet icke vem som har tagit 
den. I do not know who has taken it. (Indirect, object) 
Jag vet icke vem ha?i s'okte. I don't know whom he 
was looking for. Further examples of interrogatives as 
subjects of indirect questions are: Jag vet icke vilken som 
kommer. I do not kiidw who is coming. Jag vet nog vad 
som vore bra for honom. I know what would be good for 
him. I fa ord jick hon veta vad som hdnt och vad (obj.) 
drangen hade gjort. In few words she was told what had 
happened and what the servant-man had done. Vet du 
vad for folk som har bott har? Do you know what sort of 
people have lived here? In cases like jag vet inte vem det 
ar, vem is not subject. 

(2) Both in direct and indirect questions, prepositions on 
which interrogatives depend, very often stand at the end 
of the clause. Ex.: (Before) At vem gav han ringe7i ? To 
whom did he give the ring ? (At end) Vem gick han sedan 
till? Whom did he go to afterwards? fag vet icke vem han 
gick till. I don't know whom he went to. Vilket hus bor du 
i? Which house do yon live in? Vad tanker du pa? 
What are you thinking about? 

Note. — On the use of adverbial compounds in place of prepo- 
sitions followed by interrogative pronouns, see § 147, note 2. 



176 RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 

2(H). COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) On the whole, relative 
clauses are used more sparingly in the spoken than in 
the written language. 

(2) The relative pronoun vilken is foreign to spoken 
Swedish. Where in the literary language its use is ad- 
vantageous to the style, or necessary for grammatical 
reasons, the spoken language in the former case uses som; 
in the latter it employs some other construction. 

(3) The relative pronoun vara is not natural to the 
spoken language, which in the case of the genitive idea 
usually employs some other manner of expression than the 
relative construction. 

(4) The relative pronouns den and de'n ddr are not used 
in the spoken language. 

(5) As the spoken language does not use the relative pro- 
noun vilken, it follows that a preposition governing the 
relative more often stands at the end of the clause in the 
spoken language, where this is always the case, than in 
the written language. 

(6) While prepositions governing interrogative pronouns 
also in the literary language frequently stand at the end cf 
the clause, this is to a greater extent characteristic of the 
spoken language. 

(7) In the spoken language a shorter form, hurdan is 
used for hurudan. 

(8) In easy speech the interrogative vilken is pronounced 
vicken . 

EXERCISE XXIII. 
And then 1 she related how she formerly had roamed 
about everywhere. No forest had been too dense for her, 2 

1 Sa. 2 Hade varit henne for tat. 



xxiii relative; and interrogative pronouns 177 

no mountain too steep. She wanted to see and know 
everything 1 in nature, she wanted to reach everything. 1 

But one day she had wandered high up on a moun- 
tain, and out on a ledge she had caught sight of a little 
flower which she had never seen before. It was very beau- 
tiful. It grew so far out over the abyss, that she had at 
once understood that it would be hard to reach, but she 
could not turn her eyes from it, and her heart beat loudly 
with 2 longing to pick 3 it. 

And so 4 she crept cautiously on [her] hands and feet 
out towards the abyss to pick the flower. She was already 1 
so close to it 5 that she was extending her hand to take it, 
but then her foot slipped, and she fell. When she regained 
consciousness, 6 she found herself lying with broken hip- 
bone. 

"And now," she said to Violanta, "I cannot even pick 
the flowers in my own orchard. But you, who are young 
and healthy, you can climb up to the heights 7 I cannot 
reach, and press into the thickets 7 where I have never 
been. You shall fetch me the most hidden flowers; 7 
the lightest butterflies, and then I shall tell you the most 
wonderful things about them. You don't dream of the 
secrets that are written in the smallest little stone; 
every flower has its own word to say." 

Violanta listened to the fair lady. Her voice was so soft, 
and her eyes so beaming, and around her resting-place the 
violets smelled so sweetly. ' l Yes," said Violanta, "I want 
to stay here with you. But what shall I call you ? I don't 
know what your name is." 8 — "Call me Penserosa," said 
the stranger. 



1 Place first in clause. 7 Use prepositive, but no post- 

2 Av. positive .article. Look for other (un- 

3 Att fa. plocka. designated) cases of this kind in this 
4- And so, sa. exercise. 

5 .So close to it, den sa nara. 8 Vad du heter. 

6 Ater kom till medvetande. 



17S RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS XXIII 

And so Violanta entered the service of 1 the beautiful 
Penserosa. And everything that she found on her wander- 
ing she had to bring home. Then Penserosa told Violanta 
with beaming eyes about everything she had brought. It 
was as if the flowers she had picked and which already 
began to wither, again became fresh and told about the 
place where they had grown, and about everything they 
had seen and heard from the moment they peeped forth out 
of the earth. The dead butterflies again became living. 
The very stones muttered words which Penserosa could 
understand and explain. Everything in nature became 
so new and wonderful. 



1 Korn i tjanst hos. 



XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 179 

LESSON XXIV. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

267- Nagon, n. nagot, 1 plur. ?iagra, some, some one, 2 
something, any, 3 any one, anything, a few. Used as adjec- 
tive or noun. Gen. nago?is, ?iagras} Ex.: Jag gav gossen 
nagra slantar. I gave the boy a few pennies. Har han 
nagon van f Has he any friend? Nej\ han har icke ?idgon. 
No, he hasn't any. Nagra av mina vdnner ha varit har 
i eftermiddag . Some of my friends have been here this after- 
noon. Har du nagot nytt att berd'tta f Have you anything 
new to tell? Att ingenting saga ar bdttre an att saga nagot 
dumt. It is better to say nothing than to say something 
foolish.' 

268- Ingen, n. intet 1 plur. inga, no, no one, nothing. 
Used as adjective or noun. Gen. ingens. In place of 
ingen, icke nagon may generally be used; in some cases, 
however, especially at the beginning of a clause, ingen must 
be employed. Ex.: Ingen vet vart han gick. No one 
knows where he went. Han har inga (or icke nagra) b/om- 
mor kvar. He has no flowers left. Ingens utsikter voro 
bdttre an hans. No one's prospects were better than his. 

269. Annan, n. an?iat, 1 plur. and def. andra (-e 5 ), 
other, else (this meaning frequently after nagcn, ingen). 
Used as adjective or noun. Gen. a?mans y andras. Ex.: 



1 On the substitution of t for n in the neuter, cf. §§ 3; 126, 1, and page 
G6, foot-note. 

2 On the use of "one"' in English in the ease of adjectival words used sub- 
stantively, see H 125; 280, note 1. Note also the addition of "-thing" in 
"something", etc. 

3 English uses "any" in questions and in connection with negatives. 

4 Only the genitives in fairly frequent use are given here and below. If 
the genitive is not given (as in this case the neuter nasvts), it means that 
the omitted form(s) are either not used, or used only rarely. On the use of 
the genitive, see § 30. 

5 On the use of -e, cf. § 126. 8, b and c. The same reference applies to 
similar cases in other pronouns below. 



ISO INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 

Vill du ha den andra ha f fen? Do you want the other bat? 
Han bar i ett annat hus nu. He lives in another house 
now. Skulle vi icke tola om n&got annat? Should we not 
talk about something else ? Ingen annan var kemma. No 
one else was at home. Ar detta bord stort nog, eller vill 
die ha ett annat? Is this table large enough, or do you 
want another? 

Note. — I. Observe that Eng. "another" means either "a differ- 
ent (one)" or "one more " Swedish en annan means "another" 
only in the sense of "a different (one)." 

2. Various expressions connected with annan: en och annan, n 
ett och annat, a few, some, some few, something, one or two 
things; en eller annan, n. ett eller annat, some one or other, 
something or other. On vara'nnan, sea § 270, note 2. Andre (a) 
is also used as ordinal numeral; see §§ 286, 292. On the reci- 
procal vara'ndra, see § 212. 

270- Var, n. vart, each, every. Used almost only as an 
adjective, modifying nouns in the singular. The corre- 
sponding noun is enva'r, n. ettva'rt (rare) or var och en, n. 
vart och ett; sometimes also en och var, n. ett och vart is 
used. Gen. envars, vars och ens. Ex.: Var har sin sed. 
Each one has his own way. Var gang jag kommer dit. 
Every time I go there. De resa till Europa vart ar. They 
go to Europe every year. Enva'r vill bliva gammal, men 
i7igen vill vara det. Everyone wants to become old, but 
no one wants to be old. Det vet var och en. Everyone 
knows that. 

Note. — 1. Observe the expressions var sin, n. var silt, plur. 
var sina. Ex.: Vi Jingo var silt apple. We got an apple each. 
De sutto pd var sin sida av bordet. They were sitting on oppo- 
site sides of the table. De gingo at var sitt hall. They parted 
(went in opposite, different, directions). 

2. Vara'nnan, n. varta' nnat me_ms "e/ery other," "ever)- second." 
So var tredje, n. vart tredje, every third; var fjdrde, n. vart 
fjarde, every fourth, etc. On vara'ndra, see § 212. 

3. Vare'nda, n. varte'nda, every, every one. No plural. Used 
as adjective. For the corresponding noun, en, n. ett is adde.l. 



XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS l8l 

271- Varje every, each, indeclinable adjective, 1 used 
with nouns in the singular. Ex.: Varje gata ar lika 
vacker som denna. Every street is just as beautiful as this 
one. Han stannade vid varje hus. He stopped at every 
house. 

272. All, n. allt, plur. alia, all. May be used sub- 
stantively only in the neuter singular and in the plural. 
Gen. (plur.) alias} When Eng. "all" means "whole" 
it must generally be rendered by hel in Swedish. Ex.: 
Han talade o'm allt. He told everything. All mj'dlk ar 
vit. All milk is white. Alia blevo sjuka. All became 
sick. Av allt mitt hjdrta. With all my heart. Pa allt 
salt. In every way. En gang for alia. Once for all. 

273. Mangen, n. manget, plur. ??ia?iga, many a, many. 
Used as adjective or noun. Gen. ma?igens, mangas. Ex.: 
Mangen gang. Many a time. Manga av gossarna voro 
trbtta. Many of the boys were tired. 

Plera (-<?) more, several (when there is no idea of 
comparison). In the meaning "more" there is also a 
shorter form fler. Fler(a) is comparative of manga. Gen. 
fleras, fleres. Ex.: Ha?i gjorde detta pa jleras begara?i. 
He did this at the request of several. Flera fartyg hava 
anldnt. Several vessels have arrived. 

Fiesta (-e) most, the majority, is the superlative of 
manga. Gen. -s. Ex.: De fiesta voro redan gangna. Most 
of them were already gone. 

274. Fa few, indeclinable plural. Used as adjective 
or noun. Note the expression nagra fa a few. The com- 
parative is farre. Ex.: Fa veta det och dnnn farre borde 
veta det. Few know it and still fewer ought to know it. 



1 Rarely used as noun: litet av varje a little of everything. 

2 The adverb alls at all, is in its origin a genitive singular o» all. An 
older form of the genitive plural is seen in the adverb allra of all, very (cf. 
I 150). On the adverbial use of genitives, ef. g 147, 3. 



t82 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 

27.V Bada, bagge, both. Used as adjectives or nouns. 
Gen. -.?. Bada and bagge are regularly followed by the 
noun in the def. form when they are used as adjectives. 
When preceded by the prepositive definite article, they 
meau "two." They are often followed by tva for em- 
phasis. Ex.: Bada gossama sprungo bort. Both boys ran 
away. De voro bada gam/a. They were both old. En 
av de bagge. One of the two. De bada gossama. aro 
brbder. The two boys are brothers. De bagge fbrsta 
ordningstalen. The two first ordinals. Vi bada we two, 
both of us. Bada tva kommo for tidigt. Both of them 
came too early. 

276- Somlig, n. somligt (also somt) , plur. somliga, 
some. Gen. somligas. The singular is used almost only 
with names of material and with abstract noun?. Ex.: 
Somligt vin ar nastan vitt. Some wine is almost white. 
Somliga voro for stora. Some were too large. 

277- Enda (e) only, only one. Used as adjective or 
substantive; as substantive it is always preceded by the 
indef. or def. article. Gen. -s. Delta ar den enda stolen 
som ar kvar. This is the only chair that is left. En enda 
so7i. An only son. Ha?i ar enda sonen. He is the only 
son. Han fick icke en enda. He did not get a single one. 
De voro de enda som icke kommo. They were the only 
ones who did not come. 

278- Egeil, n. eget } plur. egna, own; only the indefinite 
form is used in this meaning; see § 122, note. 

279- Man one, they, people. Singular. Used only 
substantively as subject. When Swedish has ma?i followed 
by a transitive verb, English often uses a passive con- 
struction. For the objective relation, the pronoun en is 
used, and for the genitive, ens. The reflexive is sig, and 
the reflexive possessive, sin (see §§ 162 f. , and page 90, 



XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 183 

foot-note 2.) Ex.: Man kan inte gdrna tiga ndr folk ljuger 
pa en, i synnerhet om ens vdnner borja tro pa fbrtalet. One 
can not very well remain silent when people lie about one, 
especially if one's friends begin to believe the slander. 
Man vet icke vad som kan hdnda en. One doesn't know 
what may happen to one. 

280- Den ena (-e), n. det ena, the one. Used as adjec- 
tive or noun. Gen. -s. Den ena sdvdl som den andra. 
One as well as the other. Han gick frdn den ena till den 
andra. He went from one to the other. On en } see § 279. 

Note. — 1. In using adjectives as nouns, Swedish does not add 
en, corresponding to the English use of "one"; as, "this is a good 
one," "anyone," "this one." See § 125. 

2. On the interrogative vad for en, see § 262. On en as numeral 
see § 286. On en och annan, en eller annan, see § 269, note 2. 
— En may also be used as adverb, meaning "about," "some;" as, 
en /emtio personer about fifty people, en sex, sju stycken some six 
or seven. This belongs primarily to the spoken language. — The 
adverb ens at all, even, is in its origin a genitive of en. Note also 
the expression med ens at once. 

281. Compounds with -dera: 

Endera, n. ettdera, either, one of two 
?idgondera, 11. ndgotdera, either 
ing endera, n. intetdera, neither 
vardera, n. vartdera, each 
oaggedera, bddadera (more rare), both 
These are generally used as nouns; they have the reg- 
ular genitive, ingenderas , etc. When they are employed 
as adjectives, the following noun has definite form. Ex.: 
Han kommer nog endera dagen. He will no doubt come 
one of these days. Ingendera kan klaga. Neither can com- 
plain. Ndgondera kommer vdl. One of them will come, 
no doubt. 



[84 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 

282- Compounds of -ting- nagouthig, something, any- 
thing; ingenting nothing; allting everything. They are 
used only substantively, as neuter singulars. Ex.: Han 
sade ingenting. He said nothing. Att ingenting saga ar 
bdttre an att saga nagot dumt. It is better to say nothing 
than to say something foolish. Har ar ndgo?iting gott. 
Here is something good. 

283. The interrogative pronouns (see § 258) followed 
by som heist are used as indefinite pronouns. When a rela- 
tive clause follows, som may be omitted. When they are 
used adjectively, the noun which they modify is placed 
between the interrogative pronoun and som heist; as, vilken 
gosse som heist any bo)^. Ex. : Det kan vem som heist 
gora. Any one can do that. Du far taga vilken bok som 
heist. You may take any book. Tag vad heist du vill. 
Take anything you like. Vddret ma bliva hurudant som 
heist. No matter what the weather may be. 

284. The interrogative pronouns may also be used as 
indefinite relatives, either alone, or followed by an. When 
they stand in the subject relation, som is added, (cf. §§ 254; 
265, 1). Ex.: Begdr vad du vill. Ask whatever you wish. 
Vilken vdg du d?i far, sd blir resan trevlig. Whatever 

way you go, the journey will be pleasant, fag ko?nmer att 
resa hurudant vddret an blir. I shall go, whatever the 
weather will be. Vem som har gjort det, sd bbr han straf 
fas. Whoever has done it, he should be punished. 

Note. — Also the indefinite pronouns nagon and ingen may be 
followed by som heist: nagon som heist any (one) at all, ingen 
som heist no (one) at all. 

285. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) In the spoken language 
the form inget is used as the neuter of ingeii, in place of 
the literary intet. 



XXIV INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 1 85 

(2) The indefinite pronouns envar, en och var, varje, bdg- 
gedera and badadera belong primarily to the literary lan- 
guage. 

(3) In the spoken language de 1 they, is very often used 
instead of ma?i. Ex. : De sdger alt ha?i har rest till Amerika. 
They say that he has gone to America. — Sometimes en is 
in easy speech used in place of man, that is also as subject, 
but this use is rather dialectic. 

(4) In easy speech sdda?i is often pronounced sann. 
In Svealand nagot is in easy speech pron. nage. 

EXERCISE XXIV. 

Violanta never grew weary of sitting 2 at Penserosa's 
feet and listening to the words of wisdom that passed 
out from her mouth. The longer Violanta lived there, 
the more she liked to be there. She wanted to become 
acquainted with 3 all the secrets of nature, and for that 4 
a whole human life was not long enough. 5 

Summer passed like a single day of sunshine. Then 
one evening an icy cold breeze blew over the river, and 
the first withered leaves came whirling down from the 
chestnut trees. "Oh," said Penserosa and sighed, "that 
was the first greeting of winter. Now it will soon drive 6 
us away from here. Now the storks and swallows and 
ducks are flying away, but you, Violanta, you will always 
stay 6 with me, won't you?" 7 — "Always, that is a hard 
word," answered Violanta. "I'll promise 6 nothing." — 
"In that 8 you do right," said Penserosa and looked 
grave. "For you would not keep it." 



1 Pronounced di (see g 27, 5). Also the form dem (pronounced dcrni) may 
be used. 

2 See § 220. 2, a. 6 What tensein Swedish? See § 111 , 

3 Become acq. with, lara kanna. 1. 

4 Dartill. 7 Use "val". 

5 Was long- enough, rackte. S Adverbial compound ; cf. note 3. 



1 86 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS XXIV 

Violanta became red in her face. For, to be sure, one 
can say such things to one's self, but one doesn't like 
to hear others bay them. "Why don't you think that I 
should keep my promise?" asked Violanta. — "I [can] see 
that by your eyes," answered Penserosa, and looked deeply 
into her eyes. 1 "In there 2 are 3 all the wild waves of the 
sea." — "The wild waves of the sea. The wild waves of 
the sea," sang 4 the forest above her head. "All the wild 
waves of the sea. All the wild waves of the sea," roared 4 
the river beneath her feet. — "Oh, yes," sighed Violanta, 
"the wild waves of the sea. It is to them that I long [to 
go]. 5 If I could only get to see 6 them once. I want to 
see them. I want to reach them, all the wild waves of the 
sea." 

When Violanta awoke [the] next morning 7 there was a 
storm. 8 She dressed quickly and ran out. The storm 
took hold of her dress, lifted her like a leaf, and whirled 
her over the plain into the forest. "The wild waves of the 
sea," roared 4 the forest. "The w T ild waves of the sea," 
stormed 4 the river. She flew onward like a wild swan with 
the veil fluttering like wings behind her. From the forest 
she came out upon the open heath where there grew neither 
trees nor bushes, and there she went 8 along with double 
speed. The storm carried her onward, nearer and nearer 
to the sea. Her feet scarcely touched the ground, and she 
could no longer breathe. All of a sudden a blast of wind 
blew her down, and she lay under a ridge of sand, un- 
conscious. 



1 Sag henne djupt i ogonen. 5 See § 241. note 2. 

2 See foot-note 8, p. 185. 6 Get to see, fa se. 

3 Ga. 7 Nasta morgon. 

4 Use impersonal construction; as, 8 Impersonal construction, it went, 
it sang in the forest, it roared in the river. 



XXV 



NUMERALS 



187 



LESSON 


XXV. 


NUMERALS. 


§286. 




CARDINALS 


ORDINALS 


1. en, n. ett 


fbrste (-a) 


2. tvd {tvenne, hi) 


andre (-a) 


3. tre (trenne) 


tredje 


4. fyra 


fjarde 


5. fern 


femte 


6. ^.r 


sjette 


7. sju 


sjunde 


8. «#a 


dttonde 


9. WZ0 


nionde 


10. tio 


tionde 


11. */ro 


elfte 


12. /tf/z- 


tolfte 


1 3 . tretton 


trettonde 


14. fjorto?i 


fjortonde 


15. femton 


femtonde 


16. sexton 


sex ton de 


17. sjuttan 


sjnttonde 


18. cider ton 


adertonde 


19. nitton 


nitton de 


20. tjugii, tjugo 


tjugonde 


21. tjuguen, n. tjuguett 


tjugufdrsta 


22. tjugutva 


tjngnandra 


30. irettio, tretti 


trettionde 


31. tretti(o)en, n. /;r/- 


tretti(o)forsta 


#o>?# 




40. fyi'tio, fyrti 


fyrtionde 


50. f emtio , f em ti 


femtio7ide 


60. sextzo, sexti 


sexiionde 


70. sjuttio, sjutti 


sjnttionde 



JSS NUMERALS- XXV 

So. dMo, dtti dttionde 

90. nittio, nitti ni Monde 

100. (eft) hundra hundrade 

101. hundra en i 11. hun- hundrafbrsta 

dra ett 
200. tva hundra tva hundrade 

211. /z'« hundra elva tva hundra elfte 

1,000. (et£) tusen tusende 

1,165. ett tusen ett hundra ett tusen ett hundra sex- 
sexli(o) fern ti(p) femte 

1,000,000. en million 
2,000,000. tva million er 

REMARKS ON THE CARDINALS. 

287. When used as adjectives 1 the cardinals are inde- 
clinable, except that en has the neuter ett, this also in 
compound numerals; as, en gosse, ett bord, tretti(o)ett dr 
och tjuguen dagar. 

When employed as nouns they have the usual genitive 
in -s; as, de Adertons beslut the decision of the Eighteen 
(of the Swedish Academy) ; det dr ej ens skull att tva trata, 
it is not the fault of one that two quarrel. 

Note. — When hundra and tusen are used as nouns, they may 
also have the forms hundrade and tusende, which are neuters of 
the Fourth Declension; these are used almost only in the definite 
form; as, det fbrsta tusendet the first thousand. 

288- Tvenne and trenne are not infrequently employed 
in place of tva and tre, but they never occur in compound 
numerals; as, tvenne (or tva) ganger two times, but only 
tjugutvd. 

1 Just as adjectives, so cardinals used as adjectives must be preceded by 
the prepositive def. article when the following noun has def. form; the nu- 
meral, however, does not have def. form; as, de fyra arstidema the four sea- 
sons. 



XXV NUMERALS 1 89 

Tu is in certain expressions used in place of tva; as, pa 
hi man hand in private, alone; de unga tu the young 
couple; det dr icke tu tal om den saken, there is no doubt 
about that matter; ett, tic, tre suddenly, used also in 
counting; klocka?i dr tu (not used in Gotaland) it is two 
o'clock. Cf. the adverb itu in two, in pieces; as, skdra itu 
cut in two; gd itu break (intr.). 

289- Tretti, fyrti, etc., for trettio, fyrtio, etc., are used 
freely, except in the elevated style; in compound numer- 
als the shorter form is parti ularly frequent; as, trettien, 

fyrtitre So also in the case of ordinals; as, fyrtitredje. 

290- Hundra and tusen are always preceded by ett ex- 
cept in counting. Before hundra, however, ett may be 
omitted at the beginning of a compound numeral; as, ett 
hundra en or hundra en, but always ett tusen ett hundra en. 

Och is not employed to connect hundreds with tens. 

291- Cardinals are in certain cases used where ordi- 
nals would be more natural, as in English; as, sid. 8 
(szdan atta) page 8, dr 1913 (nitton hundra tretton) (in) 
the year 1913, kap. 7 {kapitel sjii) chapter 7. 

REMARKS ON THE ORDINALS. 

292- The ordinals fbrste (-a) and a7idre (-a) have the 
form of weak adjectives; the others are indeclinable ad- 
jectives, ending in -e. A following noun always has the 
def. form; the ordinals are also ordinarily preceded by the 
prepositive def. article but not always; see § 124. 

When used as nouns ordinals have the usual genitive in 
-s; as, Karl den tolftes bedrifter the feats of Charles the 
Twelfth. 

Note. — 1. As in English, only the last member of a compound 
numeral is an ordinal; as, tjuguforsta. 

2. The ordinals are sometimes written with the arabic numeral 
alone, sometimes with the ending indicated; as, den 7 juni June 
7, den 6:e, den 2:a, den i:sta. 



190 NUMERALS XXV 

VARIOUS FORMATIONS CONNECTED WITH 
NUMERALS. 

293- FORMED WITH CARDINALS: (i) Onoe, twioe, 
etc. For these Swedish employs the cardinal with gang 
time, plur. ganger; as, en gang, 1 tva ganger, tre ganger. 

(2) Simple, double, two-fold, triple, etc The Swedish 
word for "simple" is e?ikel (n. enkelt, plur. enkla); that 
for "double" is dubbel (n. dubbelt, plur. dubbla). Above 
two, 2 -dubbel, or, less frequently, -faldig (n. -/, plur. -a) 
is added to the cardinal; as, tredtibbel or trefaldig, fyr(a)- 
dubbel or fyr(a)faldig . 

(3) One by one, by twos, etc. Swedish expresses the 
distributive idea by means of the repeated cardinal with 
och between, or by adding i sander to the cardinal; as, 
tva och tva or tva i sander. 

(4) Kinds of. Swedish expresses this idea by means 
of the neuter word slag kind, with an added -s; as, elt 
slags, tva slags, tre slags, bdgge slags, manga slags. 

(5) Swedish employs tal (n.) number, to denote the de- 
cade or century; as, Sotalet the eighties, the period (18)80 
-89; 1800-talet the nineteenth century, the period 1800- 
1899. 

Also to denote an approximate number; as, ett tiotal 
about ten. 

Tal is used with an added -s in a few expressions like 
hundratals hundreds (of); tusentals thousands (of); as, 
hundratals flug or hundreds of flies. 

(6) Names of the numerals, particularly through 
"twelve," are formed adding to the cardinal the ending 
-a, before which an unaccented vowel is dropped. These 
are nouns of the First Declension. Ex.: en etta, a figure 



1 When en gang means "once," "one time," en has more stress than gang. 
When gang has the greater stress, this phrase means "once (upon a time)." 

2 Even in case of "two," similar compounds maybe used: tvadubbel , tva- 
faldig- 



XXV NUMERALS 19 1 

I, en tvda, en nia; fyran, nian; tva treor. Note also: en 
femma a five-crown bill; en tia a ten-crown bill. Sjuttio- 
femman dr fbrsenad. (Train) number 75 is behind time. 

294 formed with ordinals. (1) Firstly, secondly, 
etc. For these ideas Swedish uses the expressions for det 
fdrsta,fdrdetandra, etc. 

(2) Fractions. One half is en hah. Denominators above 
two are formed by adding del part, plur. delar, to the ordi- 
nals; as, e?i tredjedel, tva tredjedelar, en fjdrdedel, en sjun- 
dedel. In the case of ordinals ending in -onde, -de is 
dropped before -del, except in the elevated style; as, en 
dtto?i(de)del, en nion{de)del y en tretto7i{de)del; so also in 
hu?idra(de)del, tusen(de)del. Notice, however, en tjugu- 
endel one twenty-first; e?i tj?ig?ttvd(e)ndel one twenty-second; 
en trettitva{e)ndel cue thirty-second, etc. 

When used before a noun, the ending -dels is added to 
the ordinal both in the singular and plural; as, ett fjdrde- 
dels dr, tre fjdrdedels dr; but enfjdrdedel av dret, tre fjdr- 
dedelar av dret. 

Note. — 1. In place of en och en halv, halvannan, n. halvannat 
is frequently used; so, though much more rarely, halvtredje for 
tva och en halv, etc. A following noun is put in the singular. 

2. In place of fjardedel, kvart (n., 5) is in some cases employed; 
when it stands before a noun, -s is added; as, en kvarts timme a 
quarter of an hour; e?i kvarts mil a quarter of a mile. 

3. Observe: den forre the former, den senare the latter. 

4. On varannan, var tredje, etc., see § 270, note 2. 

EXPRESSIONS OF TIME AND DATE. 
295- TIME OF DAY. Note the following expressions: 
Hur my eke t dr kIocka?i? \ 
Vad dr klockan? vWhat time is it? 

Hur dags dr detf \ 

Klockan dr ett {fern). It is one (five) o'clock. 
Klockan dr hah fern . It is half past four. 



192 NUMERALS XXV 

En kvart {Ho minuter) over Jem. A quarter (ten min- 
utes) past five. 

En kvart fore (/, till) fern. A quarter to five. 

Klockan fattas tio minuter ifyra. It is ten minutes to four. 

Klockan dr tre kvart pa fern. It is a quarter to five. 

Klockan dr mer dnjag trodde. It is later than I thought. 

Kom klockan ett (kalv ett, fern). Come at one (half past 
twelve, five). 

Vid femtiden. (At) about five o'clock. 

Pa slaget fern {klockan fern precis) . Five o'clock sharp. 

Klockan sldr (liar slagit) fern. The clock is striking (has 
struck) five. 

296- DATE, ADDRESS: 

Den 5 (read, femte) juni. The fifth of June. 
Ar 1913. (In) the year 1913. 
Drottninggatan 16. 16 Queen Street. 

297- COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Except in very careful 
speech nio, tio and tjugo (•«) are pronounced nie, tie, tju- 
ge. Tretti, etc., is the form regularly used in speaking. 
Except in careful speech aderton is pronounced arton. 
Fyrti{p) is very rarely in careful and elevated speech 
pronounced fyrtio, the regular pronunciation being f'orti} 

(2) The words tvenne and trenne are not used in the 
spoken language. 

(3) In easy speech fjdr?idel is used in place of fjdrdedel. 

EXERCISE XXV. 

At first she did not know where she was. Everything 
about her was desolate. But then she got up and went 
farther out on the sand. She saw something blue lying 
behind the ridges. It was the sea. 

But the storm had died away, and the sea was entirely 



1 The remark on the pronunciation of fyrti(o), while not strictly belong- 
ing under colloquialisms, is included here for the sake of completeness. 



XXV NUM E R A US 193 

calm. As far [as] she could see [there] was 1 not a sign 
of land, not a boat, not a ship. Clear to the uttermost 
horizon all one single glittering, quiet blueness. 

"This is not the sea," thought Violanta. "It is the 
sky." And she went clear down to the edge of the water 
and put the tip of her shoe in the water. "Is this the 
sea," said Violanta again and looked about her. 2 "I 
hadn't imagined the sea like that. y Will I never get to 
see you, all the wild waves of the sea?" 

Bat, behold. Then it grew dark at the horizon. The 
outermost line of the sea became dark-blue, then coal- 
black. A whole army of little rippling waves flowed 
forth. Then Violanta laughed and clapped her hands. 4 
"Now they are coming. Now they are coming, the w r ild 
waves of the sea." Then the whole sea raised itself, 
dark-blue and roaring, and came in large columns toward 
the shore. "The wild waves of the sea," said Violanta. 
"They are glorious to look at." Bat nevertheless she 
felt a shudder. 

But then the waves rose and stretched up their necks. 
They became green, they became dark-blue, they became 
coal-black. They all got white foam on the tops. With 
a furious noise they roared against the shore. ''Ugh, 
ugh," whispered Violanta, "they are awful, the wild 
waves of the sea." But the sea rose higher and higher. 
The waves became as high as houses, as churches, 
as steeples. There were black abysses between them. 
They crept together, and rose up, sprang forward 
like tigers, roared like wild lions, howled like evil spirits. 

Then Violanta lifted her arms in terror to the sky. 
"The wild waves of the sea," she cried. "The wild 
waves of the sea. Whither shall I flee?" She turned to 



1 Use "finnas." 3 Like that, sa. Place first, f 

2 Sag sig omkring. 4- Tr.: "clapped in the hands.' 



194 NUMERALS XXV 

get away, but the sea was after her. The waves knocked 
her down, and beat over her. She uttered only one 
single shriek, and then she disappeared in the deep. 
And the waves danced above her, tugged at 1 her, and 
crushed her, laughed and sang, shouted and howled. 
"Do you know us now?" they called out to her as she 
was floating like white foam over the deep. "Do you 
know us now? All the wild waves of the sea." 

1 At. i- 



JUL 28 1913 



